PAWN: Piece Value Analysis with Neural Networks

In this paper, we introduce Representation Prediction via Autoencoding using Iterative Refinement (RePAIR) - a novel self-supervised representation learning architecture that synthesizes Masked Autoencoders (MAE), Joint Embedding Predictive Architectures (JEPA), and Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT). We demonstrate how it can be used to encode objects in sequential data like consecutive chess positions into compact yet meaningful representations. The basic principle of the architecture is to mask large portions of a sequence of latent states, similar to BERT and MAE. Then, we apply a lightweight Predictor to the latent representations that repairs gaps in the sequence in a lower-dimensional embedding space akin to JEPA. Our experiments in the domain of chess show that the Encoder refines the board representations such that meaningful chess concepts emerge clustered in the latent space. Furthermore, reconstructions of the masked board states show that the model is able to reason about the piece movements without relying on costly reinforcement learning methods. Lastly, we find that the resulting representation space allows for quick and intuitive dissections of chess games by observing the game path trajectories in this semantically rich space.

Chess has long served as a canonical testbed for artificial intelligence, but modeling approaches for its central tasks have diverged. Maximizing playing strength, predicting human play, and enabling interpretability are typically solved with disparate architectures, and these designs are often misaligned with the geometry of the domain. This raises the natural question of whether these objectives require separate modeling paradigms, or if there exists a single architecture that supports them simultaneously. We introduce Chessformer, a unified architecture that advances the state of the art on all three central goals in chess modeling. Chessformer is an encoder-only transformer that represents board squares as tokens, augments self-attention with a novel dynamic positional encoding called Geometric Attention Bias (GAB) that adapts to domain-specific geometry, and predicts actions with an attention-based source-destination policy head. We evaluate Chessformer on each front. First, we develop \maiathree, a family of models for human move prediction that reaches 57.1% move-matching accuracy, significantly surpassing the previous state of the art with fewer than a quarter of the parameters. Second, we integrate Chessformer into Leela Chess Zero, a leading open-source engine, adding over 100 Elo of playing strength and resulting in tournament victories over Stockfish in major computer chess competitions. Third, we show that Chessformer's square-token design makes attention patterns and activations directly attributable to board squares, enabling granular interpretability analyses that prior architectures do not naturally support. More broadly, our results demonstrate that aligning a model's tokenization, positional encoding, and output design with the underlying structure of a domain can yield simultaneous gains in performance, human compatibility, and interpretability.

Otter is a 15.3M-parameter human chess AI that predicts human move selection by modeling play as a time-aware, sequential process rather than treating each position in isolation. It combines two conditioning signals: (1) a move history encoder that conditions predictions on the last 20 moves, capturing opening preferences, positional drift, and intra-game behavioral tendencies; and (2) a time control module that modulates predictions based on clock pressure. Otter is trained on 6.1 billion positions from 117 million Lichess rapid games over 30 days on a single T4 GPU. Otter achieves 55.23% top-1 and 90.95% top-5 move-prediction accuracy, surpassing the prior state-of-the-art human chess model, Maia 2, with far fewer parameters and less training data. Across 11 Elo brackets (<1100 to >=2000), accuracy peaks at 57.38% in the 1900-1999 bracket. These results show that modeling chess as a time-aware, sequential activity yields more human-accurate move prediction than position-only approaches, using a smaller model. Code, trained models, and complete training logs are publicly released.