From Euclidean to Graph-Structured Data: A Survey of Collaborative Learning

Rémi Bourgerie; Šarūnas Girdzijauskas; Viktoria Fodor

cs.LGSep 2, 2026

From Euclidean to Graph-Structured Data: A Survey of Collaborative Learning

Authors: Rémi Bourgerie, Šarūnas Girdzijauskas, Viktoria Fodor

Organizations: School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, and Digital Futures KTH Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm, Sweden

Abstract

The conventional approach to machine learning, that is, collecting data, training models, and performing inference in a single location, faces fundamental limitations, including scalability and privacy, that restrict its applicability. To address these challenges, recent research has explored collaborative learning approaches, including federated learning and decentralized learning, where individual agents perform training and inference locally, with limited collaboration. Most collaborative learning research focuses on Euclidean data with regular, grid-like structure (e.g., images, text). However, these approaches fail to capture the relational patterns in many real-world applications, best represented by graphs. Learning on graphs relies on message-passing mechanisms to propagate information between connected nodes, making it conceptually well-suited for collaborative environments where agents must exchange information. Yet, the opportunities and challenges of learning on graph-structured data in collaborative settings remain largely underexplored. This survey provides a comprehensive investigation of collaborative learning from Euclidean to graph-structured data, aiming to consolidate this emerging field. We begin by reviewing its foundational principles for Euclidean data, organizing them along three core dimensions: learning effectiveness, efficiency, and privacy preservation. We then extend the discussion to graph-structured data, introducing a taxonomy of graph distribution scenarios, characterizing associated statistical heterogeneities, and developing standardized problem formulations and algorithmic frameworks. Finally, we systematically identify open challenges and promising research directions.

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