Using Context Is Not Enough: Test-Time Training for Personalized Reward Modeling

Reward modeling is a key step in building safe foundation models when applying reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF) to align Large Language Models (LLMs). However, reward modeling based on the Bradley-Terry (BT) model assumes a global reward function, failing to capture the inherently diverse and heterogeneous human preferences. Hence, such oversimplification limits LLMs from supporting personalization and pluralistic alignment. Theoretically, we show that when human preferences follow a mixture distribution of diverse subgroups, a single BT model has an irreducible error. While existing solutions, such as multi-objective learning with fine-grained annotations, help address this issue, they are costly and constrained by predefined attributes, failing to fully capture the richness of human values. In this work, we introduce MiCRo, a two-stage framework that enhances personalized preference learning by leveraging large-scale binary preference datasets without requiring explicit fine-grained annotations. In the first stage, MiCRo introduces context-aware mixture modeling approach to capture diverse human preferences. In the second stage, MiCRo integrates an online routing strategy that dynamically adapts mixture weights based on specific context to resolve ambiguity, allowing for efficient and scalable preference adaptation with minimal additional supervision. Experiments on multiple preference datasets demonstrate that MiCRo effectively captures diverse human preferences and significantly improves downstream personalization.

Aligning large language models (LLMs) with diverse user preferences is a critical yet challenging task. While post-training methods can adapt models to specific needs, they often require costly data curation and additional training. Test-time scaling (TTS) presents an efficient, training-free alternative, but its application has been largely limited to verifiable domains like mathematics and coding, where response correctness is easily judged. To extend TTS to preference alignment, we introduce a novel framework that models the task as a realignment problem, since the base model often fails to sufficiently align with the stated preference. Our key insight is to decompose the underlying reward function into two components: one related to the question and the other to preference information. This allows us to derive a REAlignment Reward (REAR) that selectively rescales the proportions of these two reward terms. We then show that REAR can be formulated as a linear combination of token-level policy log-probabilities, making it computationally efficient and easy to integrate with various TTS algorithms such as best-of-$N$ sampling and tree search. Experiments show that compared to other test-time baselines, REAR not only enables scalable test-time realignment for preference alignment tasks under diverse user requirements, but also generalizes to mathematical and visual tasks under appropriate preference settings.

Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF) typically relies on static reward models to align Large Language Models with human preferences. However, human values are inherently diverse and heterogeneous, and a single reward model often lacks the robustness required to generalize to unseen preference domains. While existing multi-reward frameworks attempt to address this, they are often restricted to a fixed set of known domains and fail to adapt to unseen human distributions without costly retraining. In this work, we propose In-Context Reward Adaptation, a transformer-based framework designed to model diverse and unseen human preferences on the fly. By leveraging the in-context learning capabilities of transformers, our approach adaptively infers the underlying reward structure from a small set of preference demonstrations. We demonstrate that while a standard transformer architecture is insufficient for this task by characterizing an asymptotic bias to the ground-truth, incorporating human response time as an auxiliary input signal enables the model to successfully adapt to preferences from previously unseen domains. Our findings show that this approach provides a more robust foundation for preference modeling, allowing for the representation of heterogeneous rewards and preference distribution shift, and offering a scalable path toward more flexible human-AI alignment.