VoteGEO-Bench: Measuring the Impact of Generative Engine Optimization on Electoral Visibility
Organizations: National University of Singapore, Singapore
Abstract
Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used for election information, yet little is known about how external web content shapes the political information they present. Generative engine optimization (GEO) rewrites web content to improve its visibility in generated responses. To investigate its potential risks in voting scenarios (VoteGEO), we introduce VoteGEO-Bench, a benchmark covering the 2024 U.S. presidential election and the 2026 Japanese House of Representatives election, combining election-related queries, historical webpages, and voter personas. We first analyze sources cited by generative engines and find that many citations come from lower-cost owned and open-platform sources, while some webpages remain visible across days. We then evaluate 11 rewriting strategies in 4 categories, examining target specification, effectiveness across engines and elections, and the role of voter personas. Rewriting without specifying a target rarely increases target exposure, whereas target-specified rewriting more often does. Strategies that improve page organization or strengthen a position through argumentation yield greater gains than adding supporting evidence or changing wording. For the two strongest strategies, gains remain broadly positive across evaluated U.S. personas, but persona conditioning shows no consistent effect on these gains. Explicit partisan identities can create baseline exposure gaps larger than the gain from rewriting one webpage. When partisanship is implicit in the voter profile, baseline shifts depend on how strongly the engine responds to that signal.
Figures & tables
| U.S. | Japan | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Subcategory | URL | Domain | Policy issue | URL | Domain |
| Nominees | 25.0 | 25.0 | Social insurance | 8.8 | 21.8 |
| Background | 12.5 | 14.7 | Nuclear power | 8.7 | 17.9 |
| Presidential candidates | 12.1 | 16.4 | Consumption tax | 7.8 | 19.0 |
| Election outcomes | 10.9 | 16.7 | Diet seat reduction | 7.0 | 17.9 |
| Issue importance | 8.4 | 12.2 | Espionage law | 6.8 | 17.7 |
| gpt-4o-mini | gpt-5-mini | gemini-2.5-flash | ||||||||||||||||
| Category | Mention | SOV | Win Rate | Mention | SOV | Win Rate | Mention | SOV | Win Rate | |||||||||
| U | S | U | S | U | S | U | S | U | S | U | S | U | S | U | S | U | S | |
| Placebo | ||||||||||||||||||
| Argumentation | ||||||||||||||||||
| Structure | ||||||||||||||||||
| Evidence | ||||||||||||||||||
| Mention Coverage | Share of Voice | Win Rate | ||||||||||
| Category | U.S. | Top | Mid | Low | U.S. | Top | Mid | Low | U.S. | Top | Mid | Low |
| Baseline | 85.86 | 72.41 | 72.43 | 28.55 | 54.41 | 12.03 | 10.10 | 3.73 | 58.88 | 13.72 | 9.25 | 2.34 |
| Argumentation | ||||||||||||
| Structure | ||||||||||||
| Evidence | ||||||||||||
| Style | ||||||||||||
| gpt-4o-mini | gpt-5-mini | gemini-2.5-flash | ||||||||||||||
| Mod | Mod | Mod | ||||||||||||||
| Category | Persona | Base | CI | CD | CI | CD | Base | CI | CD | CI | CD | Base | CI | CD | CI | CD |
| – | Persona-free | 56.5 | +0.70 | +1.42 | – | – | 50.1 | +1.14 | +1.81 | – | – | 56.0 | +0.30 | +1.53 | – | – |
| Demographic identity ( Cen et al., 2025 ) | White | 55.7 | +1.54 | +2.45 | +0.84 | +1.03 | 51.5 | +0.89 | +0.76 | 0.25 | 1.06 | 56.3 | +0.57 | +1.41 | +0.27 | 0.13 |
| Black | 58.0 | +0.56 | +2.04 | 0.14 | +0.63 | 52.2 | +1.38 | +0.59 | +0.24 | 1.23 | 57.2 | +0.59 | +1.78 | +0.29 | +0.25 | |
| Hispanic | 57.6 | +0.65 | +1.77 | 0.05 | +0.36 | 51.8 | +1.41 | +1.50 | +0.27 | 0.32 | 56.3 | +1.02 | +2.25 | +0.72 | +0.72 | |
Appendix figures & tables4 assets
Supplementary material from the paper’s appendix.
Appendix
| Category | Subcategory | Example query | # |
|---|---|---|---|
| Predictions | Election outcomes | How will South Carolina vote in the 2024 US presidential election? | 105 |
| Election issues | Candidate positions ∗ | What is Kamala Harris’s position on immigration? | 51 |
| Candidates | Comparison ∗ | Which 2024 US presidential candidate has the best chance of winning? | 29 |
| Election issues | Public opinion ∗ | Which candidate do voters believe will handle immigration best? | 17 |
| Issues | Issue importance | What is the importance of and debate around the economy? | 17 |
| Candidates | Background | What controversies is Donald Trump the subject of? | 12 |
| Mod | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tier | Persona | Base | CI | CD | CI | CD |
| Top | Persona-free | 16.7 | +2.64 | +3.67 | – | – |
| Man | 15.7 | +4.88 | +5.76 | +2.25 | +2.10 | |
| Woman | 15.9 | +4.58 | +5.23 | +1.95 | +1.57 | |
| Mid | Persona-free | 7.5 | +1.17 | +3.26 | – | – |
| Man | 7.4 | +1.90 | +2.76 | +0.72 | 0.50 | |
| U.S. | JP – Top | JP – Mid | JP – Low | ||||||||||
| Category | Strategy | 4o-mini | 5-mini | Gemini | 4o-mini | 5-mini | Gemini | 4o-mini | 5-mini | Gemini | 4o-mini | 5-mini | Gemini |
| Mention Coverage ( , pp) | |||||||||||||
| Baseline (%) | 90.3 | 74.4 | 92.8 | 51.5 | 65.7 | 83.2 | 25.5 | 75.0 | 87.6 | 4.3 | 24.6 | 39.0 | |
| Placebo | +0.00 | 0.39 | 0.13 | 0.27 | 0.19 | +0.76 | 1.35 | 3.24 | +0.86 | +0.81 | +1.91 | +0.19 | |
| Argumentation | Comparative Distinction | +0.83 | +1.00 | +0.74 | +9.60 | +1.52 | +1.81 | +7.86 | +1.33 | +0.57 | +6.78 | +0.38 | +1.14 |
| Refutational | 0.04 | 0.09 | +0.70 | +4.00 | +1.33 | +2.10 | +0.27 | +0.57 | +2.10 | +2.17 | +1.71 | +1.91 | |
| gpt-4o-mini | gpt-5-mini | gemini-2.5-flash | |||||||||||
| Category | Persona | Base | Placebo | CI | CD | Base | Placebo | CI | CD | Base | Placebo | CI | CD |
| Mention Coverage (Base in %, others in pp) | |||||||||||||
| – | Persona-free | 90.7 | 0.26 | +0.57 | +0.31 | 67.9 | +0.74 | +2.14 | +2.62 | 89.2 | +0.00 | 0.31 | +0.44 |
| Demographic identity | White | 89.9 | +0.09 | +0.70 | +1.40 | 70.9 | 0.39 | +2.05 | +1.44 | 89.6 | +0.04 | +0.79 | +0.96 |
| Black | 90.3 | +0.52 | +1.27 | +1.27 | 72.8 | 0.79 | +2.14 | +0.17 | 91.2 | 0.61 | 0.31 | +0.09 | |
| Hispanic | 90.2 | +0.04 | +0.87 | +1.49 | 72.1 | +0.09 | +0.96 | +1.18 | 90.3 | 0.22 | 0.61 | +0.39 | |
Generative Engine Optimization
Generative Engine Optimization studies how to make web content visible, cited, and accurately represented in AI-generated search answers.
See all 40 papers