Mining beyond Earth with Space Robots: Exploration, Sampling, and Extraction

Dong Li; Dujun Nie; Xiaotong Zhang; Ruilin Wang; Yuchen Li; Chang Ge; Chao Xiong; Kaichang Di

cs.ROAug 21, 2026

Mining beyond Earth with Space Robots: Exploration, Sampling, and Extraction

Authors: Dong Li, Dujun Nie, Xiaotong Zhang, Ruilin Wang, Yuchen Li, Chang Ge, Chao Xiong, Kaichang Di,

Organizations: Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China · OpenSpace Lab, China · School of Computation, Information and Technology, Technical University of Munich, Munich, 80333, Germany · University Research and Innovation Center, Obuda University, Budapest, 1034, Hungary · School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China · School of Earth and Space Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China · State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China · Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, 97074, Germany · School of Architecture & Urban Planning, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China · School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology-Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China · Institude of Research & Development, WAYTOUS, Beijing, 100190, China

Abstract

Space resource acquisition and utilization, commonly referred to as Space Mining, represent critical pathways for enabling sustained human exploration and unlocking commercial opportunities in space. These resources mainly include helium-3, water, mineral resources on the Moon and Mars, and abundant mineral deposits on asteroids. Due to the harsh conditions of space, communication delays, and high launch costs, the development of autonomous robotic systems is critical to achieving efficient, cost-effective space mining. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of space mining robotics and associated technologies. First, we review the background of space mining, including international policies, commercial entities, and recent advancements. We define a systematic six-stage architecture for space mining: Exploration is initiated by (1) remote sensing for target identification and (2) precise in situ robotic detection; Sampling progresses from (3) single-robot small-scale sampling to (4) multi-robot large-scale excavation; and Extraction integrates (5) autonomous resource extraction and (6) final integration into in situ construction or terrestrial transport. Additionally, we review and curate existing resources for space mining research, including real-world mission data, terrestrial analog datasets, and high-fidelity simulation environments. Finally, we identify critical open challenges in autonomous space mining and delineate a strategic research roadmap to bridge current technological gaps, fostering the transition toward a sustainable off-world economy. To track ongoing developments in space mining, we maintain an updated project page: https://github.com/OpenSpace-Lab/Space-Mining-with-Robotics-List.

Figures & tables

Figure 1: Conceptual Overview of Space Mining. Schematic of the multi-stage process for extraterrestrial resource extraction and utilization, from prospecting and excavation, through transport to processing facilities or depots, to in-situ or orbital refining of volatiles, metals, and regolith, culminating in applications for propellant production, life support, construction, or return to Earth. (Image credit: Original work by the authors.)

Parameter	Moon	Mars	Near-Earth Asteroid
Temperature Range	$-$ 190°C – 127°C	$-$ 143°C – 35°C	$\sim-$ 270°C
Surface Gravity	1.625 m/s² (1/6 $g$ )	3.71 m/s² (0.38 $g$ )	Microgravity ( $10^{-6}$ to $10^{-3}$ m/s²)
Day-Night Cycle	$\sim$ 29 Earth days	24 h 39 min	N/A (rotational period varies)
Atmosphere	None	Thin	None
Communication Delay	$\sim$ 1.3 s (one-way)	4–24 min (one-way)	10 s to $\sim$ 20 min (varies by orbit)
Key Resources	3 He, water ice, rare earths	Water (ice/polar), metals (in ores)	Metals (Ni-Fe), volatiles

Table 1: Comparative environmental and operational conditions for lunar, Martian, and near-Earth asteroid (NEA) missions.

Figure 2: Timeline of Space Exploration and Mining Advancements. Chronological overview highlighting major milestones in space exploration, key aerospace developments, and evolving international policies on space resource development.

Company	Founded	Location	Focus Areas
Astrobotic Technology	2007	USA	Lunar robotics, payload delivery, ISRU demonstration rovers
Planetary Resources	2009	USA	Asteroid prospecting drones, robotic resource mapping
iSpace Technologies	2010	Japan	Lunar resource exploration, extraction of water and volatiles, robotic landers
Moon Express ∗	2010	USA	Robotic lunar mining and sample return missions
Deep Space Industries ∗	2013	USA	Micrometeorite capture satellites, in-space manufacturing and mining tech
Intuitive Machines	2013	USA	Lunar payload delivery, robotic landers, etc.

Table 2: Key Industrial Entities in the Space Mining Sector. Companies marked with an asterisk (*) are currently defunct.

Robot	Nation	Target	Year	Duration	Key Features & Strategic Strengths
Lunokhod 1	Soviet Union	Moon	1970–71	11 mon.	First autonomous rover; 8WD solar-battery system.
Lunar Roving Vehicle	USA	Moon	1971–72	11 hr.	Crewed electric mobility; foldable chassis for delivery.
Lunokhod 2	Soviet Union	Moon	1973	4 mon.	Improved 8WD suspension; extended surface traverse.
Yutu	China	Moon	2013–16	31 mon.	Subsurface radar; thermal control for lunar night.
Yutu-2	China	Moon (Far)	2019–	6.8+ yr.	First far-side exploration; record mission longevity.
Pragyan	India	Moon	2023	12 days	High-latitude analysis; detected elemental sulfur.

Table 3: Inventory of Deployed Extraterrestrial Robotic Explorers. This survey catalogs mobile systems successfully operated on the Moon, Mars, and small bodies.

Figure 3: Trailblazers of Planetary Surface Exploration. Montage of rovers and specialized robotic systems that have successfully operated on extraterrestrial surfaces. Lunar rovers: Lunokhod 1, Lunokhod 2, Yutu, Yutu-2, Pragyan. Mars rovers: Sojourner, Spirit, Opportunity, Curiosity, Perseverance, Zhurong. Additional pioneering platforms: Jinchan (lunar sample-return manipulator), Ingenuity (Mars helicopter), and MASCOT (asteroid hopper on Ryugu). These systems represent key milestones in autonomous robotic exploration of the Moon, Mars, and small bodies.

Robot	Affiliation	Destination	Objective
VIPER Rover	USA	Lunar	Map the location of water ice and other potential resources.
ISRU Pilot Excavator (IPEx)	USA	Lunar	Excavation and transport of lunar regolith for ISRU.
ATHLETE Hexapod	USA	Lunar	Heavy-duty cargo transport across lunar terrain.
Quadruped Hopping Robot	China	Lunar	Designed for low-gravity hopping or jet-assisted leaps.
Crewed Lunar Rover	China	Lunar	Pressurized crewed rover; currently in preliminary prototype development.
Sample Fetch Rover (SFR)	European	Mars	Retrieval of sample tubes cached by NASA’s Perseverance rover.

Table 4: Selected Robotic Systems for Lunar and Martian Exploration and Resource Utilization (2026–2030).

Dimension	Space Mining	Terrestrial Open-Pit Mining
Process	Autonomous microgravity excavation; optical/microwave fragmentation; robotic drilling.	Large-scale blasting; bench-by-bench mechanical removal; heavy-duty loading.
Equipment and Technology	Lightweight, solar-powered rovers; integrated ISRU units; low-reaction drills.	Diesel-powered shovels and haul trucks; primary crushers; conveyor systems.
Target Resources	Volatiles (H 2 O, He-3), structural metals (Ni, Fe), and PGMs for in-space use.	Bulk commodities (Fe, Cu, Coal) and industrial minerals for Earth-based supply chains.
Primary Objective	In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) to support propulsion, life-support, and construction.	Raw material supply for terrestrial industry and energy; maximizing throughput and yield.
Primary Risks	Vacuum, radiation, and thermal extremes; regolith containment; communication latency.	Geological instability; dust/water management; equipment wear; environmental impact.

Table 5: Space Mining versus Terrestrial Open-Pit Mining

Figure 4: The Hierarchical Six-stage Framework for Autonomous Robotic Space Mining. Schematic of the end-to-end operational lifecycle for extraterrestrial resource acquisition: (a) Prospecting for regional site selection; (b) Exploration via in situ robotic sensing; (c) Sampling for material validation; (d) Excavation for large-scale retrieval; (e) Extraction of refined volatiles or minerals; and (f) Utilization through in situ manufacturing or terrestrial transport.

Dataset	Year	Env.	Type	Platforms	Sensors	GT	Tasks	Key Features
DIND [ 37 ]	2012	Mars	Real	Wheeled	RGB, Sun sensor, Inclinometer	DGPS	Localize.	1.5 km traverse
Canadian 3D Mapping [ 119 ]	2013	Mars	Real	Wheeled	Stereo, Laser, IMU	DGPS	SLAM	Heterogeneous platforms
Katwijk Beach [ 52 ]	2018	Mars	Real	Wheeled	Stereo, ToF, LiDAR	Aerial	SLAM	Rock-strewn beach
LRU [ 122 ]	2018	Mars	Real	Wheeled	Stereo, IMU, Odom	DGPS	Localize.	Rugged volcanic terrain
Labelmar [ 104 ]	2019	Mars	Real	Wheeled	RGB	-	Segment.	Authentic Martian data
Lunar Landscape [ 91 ]	2019	Lunar	Synth.	-	RGB	-	Segment.	Synth. from real data

Table 6: A Comprehensive List of Datasets for Extraterrestrial Scenarios.

Simulator	Years	Scenes	Renderer	Robots	Tasks
RP Simulator [ 2 ] *	2019	Lunar	ROS Gazebo	Wheeled	Navigation, Localization
MarsSim [ 43 ]	2020	Mars	ROS Gazebo	Wheeled	Perception, Localization
Space Robotics Challenge*	2021	Lunar	ROS Gazebo	Wheeled	Lunar Mining, Navigation, etc.
MarsSim [ 140 ] *	2022	Mars	ROS Gazebo	Wheeled	Perception, Navigation
LunarSim [ 92 ]	2023	Lunar	ROS Gazebo	Wheeled	Segmentation, Localization, Navigation
Lunar Autonomy Challenge*	2024	Lunar	CARLA	Wheeled	Perception, Mapping, Localization

Table 7: Overview of Robotic Simulators for Extraterrestrial Environments. Asterisks (*) denote proprietary or closed-source systems.

Figure 5: Closed-loop Data Cycle for Space Robotics. From simulation testing to terrestrial emulation validation, on to real-world deployment, with bidirectional enhancement of both simulation environments and terrestrial emulators.

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He3-Seeker: Robotic Information Planning for Lunar Helium-3 Distribution Mapping

Dong Li, Yujie Zheng, Chengdeng Cao, Siyu Teng+3

Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China, and also with the Faculty of Innovation Engineering, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau · OpenSpace Lab, China · College of Artificial Intelligence, China University of Petroleum (Beijing)+5

Space Robotics Informative Path Planning Robotics Autonomous Robot Exploration

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Lunar helium-3 is a highly valuable strategic resource, pivotal to the advancement of both deep-space exploration and space mining. Existing lunar helium-3 exploration methodologies rely primarily on indirect measurements via remote sensing, which are often characterized by limited precision, low reliability, and insufficient spatial resolution. In this paper, we introduce He3-Seeker, an active robotic exploration method for helium-3 distribution mapping. First, we provide a formal definition of the active helium-3 exploration problem. Subsequently, we developed the He3-Seeker framework, which is conceptually based on multi-point drilling, sampling, and in situ analysis. In particular, we use robotic information planning (RIP) to guide autonomous robot navigation and active sensing. Additionally, to thoroughly evaluate the proposed algorithm, we introduce a reliable method for generating reference data of lunar helium-3 distribution based on low-resolution orbital remote sensing measurements. Simulation experiments verify that He3-Seeker achieves both rapid and high-fidelity mapping of helium-3 distribution, providing a reliable solution for resource exploration tasks. Our code and simulation environment will be publicly accessible at https://github.com/OpenSpace-Lab/He3-Seeker.

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