cs.LGSep 23, 2026

SpaFactor: Lightweight Spatial Context-Aware Gene Program Modeling for Histology-to-Transcriptomics Inference

Authors: Shiting Ruan, Xitong Ling, Qiming He, Ziyou Yan, Huaitian Yuan, Tian Guan, Ying Xiao, Xu Guan, +1 more

Organizations: Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, China · Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China · Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China · Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China

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Abstract

Spatial transcriptomics (ST) profiles gene expression within tissue architecture, but its cost and experimental complexity limit routine use. Predicting spatial expression from routinely available hematoxylin and eosin (HE) images therefore offers a scalable alternative. However, conventional methods often fit high-dimensional gene outputs as independent targets, overlooking the biological coordination among genes while remaining vulnerable to high-dimensional noise and overfitting. Existing attempts to address this limitation often rely on computationally heavy graph networks or complex auxiliary supervision. We therefore introduce SpaFactor, a lightweight and efficient low-rank morphology-program-gene factorization framework. At the input, SpaFactor efficiently fuses the visual representation of the central spot with multiscale local and regional neighborhood context, yielding a histologic representation that captures cellular morphology and microenvironmental heterogeneity. For modeling, a residual MLP stably learns a nonlinear mapping from the tissue microenvironment to low-dimensional latent gene programs. These activities are decoded through shared gene loadings into coordinated multi-gene expression predictions. Across five public cohorts, SpaFactor achieves the best aggregate performance, with particularly clear improvements for spatially variable genes, and more faithfully recovers biologically organized spatial patterns. These results demonstrate that lightweight joint modeling of tissue context and gene programs can improve both predictive accuracy and biological fidelity.

Figures & tables

Figure 1: Overview of SpaFactor. (a) The central spot’s frozen GigaPath embedding is concatenated with mean embeddings from its local ( k=4k=4 ) and regional ( k=16k=16 ) neighborhoods, mapped by a four-block residual MLP to latent program activities, and decoded through shared gene loadings. (b) Detailed residual encoder and factor decoder. (c) Optional SpaFactor-Cal adds an inner-fold out-of-fold calibration loss during training and is removed for H&E-only inference.
DatasetMethodSpot PCC (%)Gene PCC (%)VR-PCC@50 (%)VR-PCC@100 (%)VR-PCC@200 (%)
Primary breastStrongest prior (HE2RNA)71.19 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.37\hss}\phantom{00.00}}33.86 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.10\hss}\phantom{00.00}}68.03 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.26\hss}\phantom{00.00}}64.12 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.45\hss}\phantom{00.00}}59.49 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.69\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
 GigaPath-MLP70.29 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.60\hss}\phantom{00.00}}33.10 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.48\hss}\phantom{00.00}}67.41 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.61\hss}\phantom{00.00}}63.44 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.76\hss}\phantom{00.00}}58.84 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 7.01\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
 SpaFactor-Cal71.73 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.28\hss}\phantom{00.00}}36.33 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.71\hss}\phantom{00.00}}71.69 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.17\hss}\phantom{00.00}}67.79 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.00\hss}\phantom{00.00}}63.20 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.23\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
 SpaFactor71.67 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.29\hss}\phantom{00.00}}36.36 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.17\hss}\phantom{00.00}}72.05 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.55\hss}\phantom{00.00}}68.09 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.42\hss}\phantom{00.00}}63.41 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.68\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
Visium breastStrongest prior (hist2RNA)70.07 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 2.38\hss}\phantom{00.00}}25.27 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 5.69\hss}\phantom{00.00}}40.98 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 8.51\hss}\phantom{00.00}}42.74 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 7.68\hss}\phantom{00.00}}44.55 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 8.99\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
 GigaPath-MLP68.54 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 2.10\hss}\phantom{00.00}}24.39 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.34\hss}\phantom{00.00}}38.62 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.80\hss}\phantom{00.00}}40.63 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.09\hss}\phantom{00.00}}42.54 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 7.14\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
Table 1: Five-cohort comparison. Values are fivefold means with standard deviations in lower-right subscripts. For each dataset, “strongest prior” denotes the published baseline with the best mean rank across the five metrics, with Gene PCC breaking ties. Bold marks the highest displayed mean; complete per-model results are reported separately.
Figure 2: Primary-cohort comparison with seven published methods. Panels show fivefold mean and standard deviation for Spot PCC, Gene PCC, and VR-PCC@50/100/200. Percentages show SpaFactor’s relative gain over HE2RNA, the Table 1 strongest prior for this cohort: (SpaFactor−HE2RNA)/HE2RNA×100%(\text{SpaFactor}-\text{HE2RNA})/\text{HE2RNA}\times 100\% .
VariantSpot PCCGene PCCVR-PCC@50VR-PCC@100VR-PCC@200
Full SpaFactor71.67 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.29\hss}\phantom{00.00}}36.36 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.17\hss}\phantom{00.00}}72.05 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.55\hss}\phantom{00.00}}68.09 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.42\hss}\phantom{00.00}}63.41 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.68\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
Δ\Delta Spot only70.59 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.51\hss}\phantom{00.00}}33.99 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.96\hss}\phantom{00.00}}68.07 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.04\hss}\phantom{00.00}}64.10 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.22\hss}\phantom{00.00}}59.61 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.32\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
Δ\Delta Local only71.51 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.46\hss}\phantom{00.00}}35.66 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.11\hss}\phantom{00.00}}70.98 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.56\hss}\phantom{00.00}}67.00 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.43\hss}\phantom{00.00}}62.28 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.72\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
Δ\Delta Regional only71.66 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.36\hss}\phantom{00.00}}36.14 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.05\hss}\phantom{00.00}}71.88 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.25\hss}\phantom{00.00}}67.87 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.35\hss}\phantom{00.00}}63.12 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.59\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
Δ\Delta Plain MLP64.30 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 1.52\hss}\phantom{00.00}}16.74 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 13.59\hss}\phantom{00.00}}34.57 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 24.55\hss}\phantom{00.00}}32.86 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 23.69\hss}\phantom{00.00}}31.49 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 23.15\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
Δ\Delta Direct decoder71.50 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.30\hss}\phantom{00.00}}35.74 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.25\hss}\phantom{00.00}}71.61 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 7.10\hss}\phantom{00.00}}67.66 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.92\hss}\phantom{00.00}}62.91 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 7.09\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
Table 2: Structural component ablations on the primary benchmark. All metrics are percentages; values are fivefold means with standard deviations in lower-right subscripts.
KKSpot PCCGene PCCVR-PCC@50VR-PCC@100VR-PCC@200
6471.60 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.56\hss}\phantom{00.00}}36.18 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.15\hss}\phantom{00.00}}71.41 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.25\hss}\phantom{00.00}}67.45 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.51\hss}\phantom{00.00}}62.84 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.70\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
12871.67 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.50\hss}\phantom{00.00}}35.82 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.34\hss}\phantom{00.00}}71.40 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.54\hss}\phantom{00.00}}67.31 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.53\hss}\phantom{00.00}}62.53 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.80\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
25671.67 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.29\hss}\phantom{00.00}}36.36 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.17\hss}\phantom{00.00}}72.05 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.55\hss}\phantom{00.00}}68.09 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.42\hss}\phantom{00.00}}63.41 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.68\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
51271.55 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.32\hss}\phantom{00.00}}36.46 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.07\hss}\phantom{00.00}}72.38 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.14\hss}\phantom{00.00}}68.41 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.26\hss}\phantom{00.00}}63.72 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.56\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
102471.57 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.31\hss}\phantom{00.00}}36.06 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.29\hss}\phantom{00.00}}72.02 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.30\hss}\phantom{00.00}}67.99 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.46\hss}\phantom{00.00}}63.24 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.87\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
Table 3: Sensitivity to latent factor count on the primary benchmark. All metrics are percentages; values are fivefold means with standard deviations in lower-right subscripts.
Figure 3: Residual-depth sensitivity on the primary benchmark. Curves show fivefold mean Spot PCC (diamonds) and VR-PCC@50/100/200 (circles/squares/triangles); all metrics are percentages. Values are annotated at L=4L=4 , 10, and 12.
DepthTrainable parametersTraining time (s)Full-fold inference (s)
L=4L=422,304,97658.330.0315
L=10L=1047,501,52067.020.0365
L=12L=1255,900,36880.420.0398
Table 4: Controlled depth–efficiency comparison on one held-out primary-cohort fold.
λPCC\lambda_{\mathrm{PCC}}Spot PCCGene PCCVR-PCC@50VR-PCC@100VR-PCC@200
0.0071.59 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.32\hss}\phantom{00.00}}36.22 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.19\hss}\phantom{00.00}}71.95 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.56\hss}\phantom{00.00}}67.93 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.41\hss}\phantom{00.00}}63.27 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.61\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
0.0571.67 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.37\hss}\phantom{00.00}}35.99 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.08\hss}\phantom{00.00}}71.70 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.39\hss}\phantom{00.00}}67.69 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.34\hss}\phantom{00.00}}62.97 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.60\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
0.1071.67 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.29\hss}\phantom{00.00}}36.36 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.17\hss}\phantom{00.00}}72.05 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.55\hss}\phantom{00.00}}68.09 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.42\hss}\phantom{00.00}}63.41 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.68\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
0.2071.57 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 3.33\hss}\phantom{00.00}}36.23 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 4.10\hss}\phantom{00.00}}71.81 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.90\hss}\phantom{00.00}}67.86 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.64\hss}\phantom{00.00}}63.18 {}_{\scriptscriptstyle\pm\hbox to0.0pt{\scriptscriptstyle 6.81\hss}\phantom{00.00}}
Table 5: Gene-PCC loss-weight sensitivity on the primary benchmark. All metrics are percentages; values are fivefold means with standard deviations in lower-right subscripts. λPCC=0.10\lambda_{\mathrm{PCC}}=0.10 is the main setting.
Figure 4: Spatial recovery of four breast biomarkers on one held-out section. Rows show COL1A1, GATA3, ERBB2, and ESR1; columns show measured expression and predictions from SpaFactor (“Ours”), ST-Net, DeepSpot, and matched GigaPath-MLP on the same spots. Pearson rr measures agreement with the measured map, and each row shares a common color scale.
Figure 5: Spatial recovery of KEGG oxidative-phosphorylation activity on a held-out section. The H&E image, measured activity, and predictions from SpaFactor and matched GigaPath-MLP are aligned on the same 301 spots and share a zz -score color scale.
Figure 6: Pathway-activity fit on the held-out section in Figure 5 . Each point is one spot; solid lines are fitted regressions and dashed lines indicate identity. SpaFactor is shown on the left and matched GigaPath-MLP on the right; PCC, MAE, and RMSE are reported in each panel.
Appendix figures & tables9 assets

Supplementary material from the paper’s appendix.

Appendix

CohortSectionsSpotsPlatform
Primary breast10845,306Spatial Transcriptomics
Visium breast87163,931Visium
Bowel73205,642Visium
Brain91322,572Visium
Skin6261,634Visium
Total421799,085N/A
Appendix
Table A.1: Cohorts used in the anonymous submission.
ComponentSetting
Histology encoderFrozen Prov-GigaPath, 1,536 dimensions
ContextCentral spot + mean embeddings within the slide for k=4k=4 and k=16k=16
PredictorResidual MLP, hidden width 1,024, inner width 2,048, 4 blocks
Decoder256 factors with a shared gene loading matrix
RegularizationDropout 0.10; AdamW weight decay 10−510^{-5}
OptimizationAdamW; learning rate 10−310^{-3} ; batch size 1,024; gradient clip 5.0; at most 100 epochs
Appendix
Table A.2: Final SpaFactor configuration without a teacher, used for the main results.
MetricMean delta (pp)Wins95% CI (pp)
Spot PCC+1.0223/25[0.63, 1.45]
Gene PCC+2.0920/25[0.80, 3.44]
VR-PCC@50+3.3721/25[2.07, 4.67]
VR-PCC@100+3.0621/25[1.62, 4.44]
VR-PCC@200+2.8221/25[1.27, 4.25]
Appendix
Table A.3: Final SpaFactor minus matched GigaPath-MLP across five cohorts and five folds.
SeedSpot PCC (%)Gene PCC (%)VR-PCC@50 (%)VR-PCC@100 (%)VR-PCC@200 (%)
171.52 ±\pm 3.3736.51 ±\pm 3.9372.08 ±\pm 6.1268.24 ±\pm 6.0463.60 ±\pm 6.35
1071.62 ±\pm 3.2735.94 ±\pm 3.7571.76 ±\pm 5.7867.72 ±\pm 5.8863.01 ±\pm 5.99
4271.67 ±\pm 3.2936.36 ±\pm 4.1772.05 ±\pm 6.5568.09 ±\pm 6.4263.41 ±\pm 6.68
123471.65 ±\pm 3.3036.06 ±\pm 3.9471.61 ±\pm 6.6767.60 ±\pm 6.6162.86 ±\pm 6.76
340771.66 ±\pm 3.3635.93 ±\pm 4.2771.35 ±\pm 6.7567.33 ±\pm 6.8062.60 ±\pm 7.01
Appendix
Table C.1: Initialization stability across five training seeds; PCC mean ±\pm standard deviation over five folds (%).
MethodSpot PCC (%)Gene PCC (%)VR-PCC@50 (%)VR-PCC@100 (%)VR-PCC@200 (%)
ST-Net70.45 ±\pm 3.8335.10 ±\pm 6.8967.29 ±\pm 8.5662.43 ±\pm 8.6956.10 ±\pm 8.99
BLEEP65.09 ±\pm 3.1018.88 ±\pm 3.7847.97 ±\pm 8.1843.38 ±\pm 8.9437.34 ±\pm 8.14
DeepSpot69.11 ±\pm 3.2927.92 ±\pm 2.9065.70 ±\pm 6.4459.63 ±\pm 7.2151.65 ±\pm 7.15
GenST64.74 ±\pm 3.5216.74 ±\pm 9.6440.35 ±\pm 24.5236.42 ±\pm 22.0931.40 ±\pm 19.13
HisToGene68.55 ±\pm 3.3525.72 ±\pm 3.0764.79 ±\pm 7.0258.66 ±\pm 7.6950.77 ±\pm 7.56
HE2RNA71.19 ±\pm 3.3733.86 ±\pm 4.1068.03 ±\pm 6.2664.12 ±\pm 6.4559.49 ±\pm 6.69
Appendix
Table D.1: Complete source normalized benchmark for the primary breast cohort. Values are fivefold mean ±\pm standard deviation (%); bold marks the highest mean in each column.
MethodSpot PCC (%)Gene PCC (%)VR-PCC@50 (%)VR-PCC@100 (%)VR-PCC@200 (%)
ST-Net69.85 ±\pm 3.0348.40 ±\pm 6.8438.91 ±\pm 7.6839.28 ±\pm 7.8639.95 ±\pm 8.84
BLEEP68.37 ±\pm 2.5013.58 ±\pm 2.9626.61 ±\pm 5.4126.10 ±\pm 3.9724.13 ±\pm 5.20
DeepSpot70.46 ±\pm 2.3621.58 ±\pm 4.2537.21 ±\pm 4.0635.95 ±\pm 4.5334.23 ±\pm 5.70
GenST70.21 ±\pm 2.4619.43 ±\pm 3.0231.82 ±\pm 4.5831.21 ±\pm 4.7830.20 ±\pm 5.09
HisToGene69.07 ±\pm 2.4218.93 ±\pm 4.1737.41 ±\pm 3.8435.43 ±\pm 4.8533.86 ±\pm 6.32
HE2RNA69.88 ±\pm 2.4824.85 ±\pm 4.5639.56 ±\pm 7.0141.78 ±\pm 6.0043.89 ±\pm 7.19
Appendix
Table D.2: Complete benchmark for the Visium breast cohort. Values are fivefold mean ±\pm standard deviation (%); bold marks the highest mean in each column.
MethodSpot PCC (%)Gene PCC (%)VR-PCC@50 (%)VR-PCC@100 (%)VR-PCC@200 (%)
ST-Net53.59 ±\pm 6.9836.87 ±\pm 21.6847.88 ±\pm 25.9246.42 ±\pm 24.6443.38 ±\pm 23.77
BLEEP50.71 ±\pm 5.3715.76 ±\pm 6.6430.87 ±\pm 12.3227.67 ±\pm 11.1623.82 ±\pm 9.88
DeepSpot57.20 ±\pm 5.6731.15 ±\pm 6.5650.97 ±\pm 8.9746.73 ±\pm 8.3442.26 ±\pm 7.78
GenST55.25 ±\pm 5.5227.02 ±\pm 6.2644.35 ±\pm 8.8140.65 ±\pm 8.3536.62 ±\pm 7.81
HisToGene54.96 ±\pm 5.5025.17 ±\pm 7.0045.25 ±\pm 10.1241.05 ±\pm 9.7637.00 ±\pm 8.89
HE2RNA57.64 ±\pm 5.2043.78 ±\pm 6.2660.20 ±\pm 7.9758.46 ±\pm 7.3355.76 ±\pm 6.91
Appendix
Table D.3: Complete bowel benchmark. Values are fivefold mean ±\pm standard deviation (%); bold marks the highest mean in each column.
MethodSpot PCC (%)Gene PCC (%)VR-PCC@50 (%)VR-PCC@100 (%)VR-PCC@200 (%)
ST-Net60.07 ±\pm 2.4027.66 ±\pm 26.1940.18 ±\pm 20.1936.71 ±\pm 19.5232.23 ±\pm 18.82
BLEEP55.73 ±\pm 1.5916.28 ±\pm 3.6834.10 ±\pm 11.7729.89 ±\pm 9.4824.31 ±\pm 8.48
DeepSpot57.94 ±\pm 1.7922.07 ±\pm 2.2941.74 ±\pm 8.7836.96 ±\pm 6.6331.18 ±\pm 5.51
GenST57.58 ±\pm 2.2220.84 ±\pm 3.0239.48 ±\pm 9.6535.19 ±\pm 7.6329.56 ±\pm 6.90
HisToGene56.93 ±\pm 2.4218.47 ±\pm 3.6238.31 ±\pm 11.8533.95 ±\pm 9.2428.33 ±\pm 8.02
HE2RNA60.84 ±\pm 2.4530.16 ±\pm 6.0851.73 ±\pm 8.7648.30 ±\pm 8.3943.41 ±\pm 8.15
Appendix
Table D.4: Complete brain benchmark. Values are fivefold mean ±\pm standard deviation (%); bold marks the highest mean in each column.
MethodSpot PCC (%)Gene PCC (%)VR-PCC@50 (%)VR-PCC@100 (%)VR-PCC@200 (%)
ST-Net66.36 ±\pm 6.7663.04 ±\pm 6.1674.32 ±\pm 9.7274.22 ±\pm 10.0171.55 ±\pm 9.96
BLEEP62.70 ±\pm 6.4413.73 ±\pm 5.5439.23 ±\pm 12.0236.41 ±\pm 8.8433.32 ±\pm 9.16
DeepSpot65.32 ±\pm 6.2824.76 ±\pm 1.9652.59 ±\pm 7.4449.92 ±\pm 6.3547.98 ±\pm 4.63
GenST64.49 ±\pm 5.7421.36 ±\pm 2.9146.45 ±\pm 10.1345.11 ±\pm 7.9543.33 ±\pm 6.32
HisToGene64.93 ±\pm 6.0320.73 ±\pm 1.9652.59 ±\pm 8.1349.76 ±\pm 7.0147.45 ±\pm 5.32
HE2RNA68.05 ±\pm 6.3151.08 ±\pm 4.7879.19 ±\pm 6.0979.21 ±\pm 6.2878.13 ±\pm 5.99
Appendix
Table D.5: Complete skin benchmark. Values are fivefold mean ±\pm standard deviation (%); bold marks the highest mean in each column.

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