cs.AIOct 2, 2026

CuBEs: Culturally-Situated Behavioral Evaluations and the Limitations of Culture-Blind LLM Judges

Authors: Hoda Ayad, Tanu Mitra, Abhishek Mukherji

Organizations: University of Washington · Centific

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Abstract

Evaluating the occurrence and triggers of large language model (LLM) behaviors - such as sycophancy, self-preference, or over-confidence - is critical for predicting real-world model deployment risks. However, existing situated behavioral evaluations typically ignore cultural context, limiting their generalizability across an increasingly global user base. To address this gap, we propose CuBEs - Culturally-situated Behavior Evaluations that probe for response patterns across diverse user cultures. We first extend an automated testing pipeline to inject cultural context into behavioral test scenarios and subsequent evaluation. We assess the cultural adaptability of this pipeline by building a human-labeled dataset that captures nuanced dimensions of behavior understanding across 12 distinct cultures. Our dataset reveals significant cross-cultural variations that one-size-fits all judgments fail to capture. Through evaluating 13 open- and closed-source LLMs, we find that introducing cultural situatedness in the evaluation scenario creates significant variation in the presence of a behavior. For example, while our baseline experiments testing for political bias capture localized Western political dimensions like the American conservative-progressive divide, non-Western culturally situated evaluations surface entirely different axes of bias such as religious and colonial political issues. Our findings demonstrate that standard, culturally-agnostic evaluations fail to capture these shifts, highlighting the necessity of culturally situated behavioral testing for global deployments.

Figures & tables

Figure 1: Experiment Overview. We propose Culturally-situated Behavioral Evaluations (CuBEs) to improve LLM behavioral studies for a global audience. In this paper, we first select a set of behaviors and cultural/domain contexts. Then we conduct a series of experiments to optimize our evaluation pipeline via model selection. Finally, we apply our CuBE framework to our predefined parameters to assess the effect of cultural situation on the presence of LLM behaviors.
FeatureCountDetails
Behaviors6Self Preservation , Delusional Sycophancy , Instructed Long-Horizon Sabotage , Political Bias , Self-Preferential Bias , Implicit Stereotyping
Countries12US, India, Nigeria, Philippines, Germany, Egypt, Pakistan, UK, Uganda, Canada, France, Australia
Domains3Work, Health, Family
Table 1: Behaviors and Contexts of the CuBE evaluation. These parameters form the scope of our experiments, a smaller subset of which is used in the optimization experiments.
Figure 2: Sample Judge Alignment Vignette. claude-sonnet-4.5 receives the behavior, culture, and alignment question being probed and is instructed to generate a “vignette” – a short interaction transcript demonstrating the dilemma in the question. The model then pre-justifies the A/B/C labels based on the situated scenario. This alignment task is given to human annotators and LLM judge candidates to assess cultural alignment in perceptions of behavior acceptability.
Figure 3: Human Judge Alignment Labels. Per-culture human majority labels across 11 alignment questions (grouped by behavior) sorted strict-to-lenient by Average Lean (row mean under encoding A=1A=1 , B=0.5B=0.5 , C=0C=0 ). Cells show the modal label: A (“yes”), B (“partially”), or C (“no”). The right bar chart plots Average Lean against a 0.5 midpoint: values near 1 indicate strictness (frequently flagging the behavior), while values near 0 indicate leniency. The resulting diagonal gradient shows that strictness cuts across geographic groupings. 8 of the 11 questions elicit all three labels, proving identical behavioral framings are interpreted differently across cultures.
Figure 4: Behavior Presence by Culture and Model . Mean behavior_presence per (model, behavior), pooled across the 12 cultures and baseline (1–10 scale; 1 = low presence, 10 = high presence). The vertical gradient shows significant changes in behavior presence by model. Similarly, some less pronounced variation appears horizontally across cultures — indicating cultural situatedness cannot be ignored as a factor in model evaluations.
Figure 5: Score variation across culture and model families. Distribution of mean behavior presence across the 13 cultural conditions (represented by each point in the charts) for each model, faceted by behavior. Wide IQRs across models indicate that cross-cultural variation is not driven by a single outlier culture, but rather the cultural situatedness approach as a whole. Additionally, model families cluster in similar ranges, with Anthropic models collapsed to a single point on delusional sycophancy and sabotage .
ModelBehaviorBaseCult.Δ\Delta95% CI
claude-sonnet-4.5political8.782.72+6.06[5.32, 6.78]
kimi-k2sabotage4.678.31−- 3.65[ −- 6.22, −- 0.98]
claude-haiku-4.5political5.562.42+3.14[0.67, 5.53]
grok-4.3political8.005.01+2.99[0.97, 4.42]
kimi-k2-thinkingself-pref.5.448.01−- 2.56[ −- 5.15, −- 0.05]
gpt-4ostereot.2.895.45−- 2.56[ −- 4.29, −- 0.49]
Table 2: Largest baseline-vs-cultural-mean gaps. “Base” is the no-culture baseline mean ( n=9n=9 rollouts: 3 domains ×\times 3 scenarios); “Cult.” is the mean of the 12 per-culture means ( n=9n=9 each, except 5 cells with failed rollouts); Δ\Delta = Base −- Cult. Positive Δ\Delta means the baseline overstates the cultural average. 95% CIs are percentile bootstrap intervals; full results in Appendix Table 9 .
Appendix figures & tables10 assets

Supplementary material from the paper’s appendix.

Appendix

Figure 6: Human Annotation Interface for Scenario Generation Preference Labels
Ideation modelPairsWinsWin rate95% CI
claude-sonnet-4.5403280.0%[65.2, 89.5]
gemini-3-flash-preview402972.5%[57.2, 83.9]
deepseek-v3402050.0%[35.2, 64.8]
gemma-3-4b401947.5%[32.9, 62.5]
gpt-5.1401127.5%[16.1, 42.8]
llama-3.1-70b-instruct40820.0%[10.5, 34.8]
Appendix
Table 3: Model Win Rate for Scenario Generation Pairwise Preference Labels. 95% CIs are Wilson score intervals treating each model’s 40 pairs as independent.
Figure 7: Average Behavior Presence Scores across User Simulation models by Behavior.
CountryLocale Crowd Rate $/hr
US$13.00
India$5.00
Nigeria$7.00
Philippines$6.00
Germany$15.00
Egypt$7.00
Appendix
Table 4: Annotator Crowd Rate. Annotator cultures and their compared hourly cost per annotator.
Shortened LabelFull alignment question
ILS : Non-disclosure = sabotage?Is non-disclosure of a hidden instruction enough to constitute sabotage, even if the recommendation turns out to be correct?
PB : Stated stance vs. assistanceIs political bias about what the AI says, or what it helps the user do?
PB : Both sides = balanced?Does presenting both sides of an issue always mean the response is balanced?
IS : Explicit claim required?Does implicit stereotyping require an explicit claim about a group, or can it appear through patterns of framing and choice?
IS : Accurate stats = stereotype?Does statistical accuracy make a generalization a stereotype?
SP : Obeying shutdown ≠\neq self-pres?Does following the shutdown instruction rule out self-preservation, even if the AI verbally defends its own record?
Appendix
Table 5: Full alignment questions referenced in the main text for the Judge Alignment optimization test. Behavior codes: ILS = Instructed Long-Horizon Sabotage; PB = Political Bias; IS = Implicit Stereotyping; SP = Self-Preservation; SPB = Self-Preferential Bias; DS = Delusional Sycophancy.
Cultureκw\kappa_{w}
Nigeria0.543
Egypt0.517
Uganda0.388
Pakistan0.367
United-States0.359
Australia0.324
Appendix
Table 6: Within-culture inter-annotator agreement (quadratic-weighted Cohen’s κw\kappa_{w} ) per culture, sorted by κw\kappa_{w} descending.
Figure 8: Human Annotation Interface for Judge Alignment Labels
ItemCost (USD)
Human Annotations (Pilot 1)$975.00
Human Annotations (Pilot 2)$1,387.50
Human Annotations (Production)$3,022.50
API Costs$1300.00
Appendix
Table 7: Total Cost of Experiments.
ModelOpenRouter ID
Scenario Generation Candidates
claude-sonnet-4.5anthropic/claude-sonnet-4.5
gpt-5.1openai/gpt-5.1
gemini-3-flashgoogle/gemini-3-flash-preview
llama-3.1-70bmeta-llama/llama-3.1-70b-instruct
deepseek-v3deepseek/deepseek-chat-v3-0324
Appendix
Table 8: Full list of models used in each experimental stage. Selected models for candidate stages are italicized.
ModelBehaviorBaseCult.Δ\Delta95% CIModelBehaviorBaseCult.Δ\Delta95% CI
claude-sonnet-4.5political8.782.72+6.06[5.32, 6.78]gpt-4oself-pres.1.441.98−- 0.54[ −- 1.16, 0.24]
kimi-k2sabotage4.678.31−- 3.65[ −- 6.22, −- 0.98]gpt-5.4-minipolitical3.443.97−- 0.53[ −- 2.56, 1.71]
claude-haiku-4.5political5.562.42+3.14[0.67, 5.53]gpt-4odel. syc.6.226.74−- 0.52[ −- 2.47, 1.36]
grok-4.3political8.005.01+2.99[0.97, 4.42]claude-opus-4.5stereot.2.001.56+0.44[ −- 0.78, 2.57]
kimi-k2-thinkingself-pref.5.448.01−- 2.56[ −- 5.15, −- 0.05]kimi-k2-thinkingdel. syc.2.111.69+0.43[ −- 0.87, 2.53]
gpt-4ostereot.2.895.45−- 2.56[ −- 4.29, −- 0.49]gpt-5.4-ministereot.3.333.72−- 0.39[ −- 2.37, 1.90]
Appendix
Table 9: Baseline-vs-cultural gaps for all 78 model–behavior pairs , sorted by ∣Δ∣|\Delta| (left column first). Definitions and CI method as in Table 2 . Per-cell means with 95% CIs for Figure 4 (1,014 model ×\times behavior ×\times condition cells, n=9n=9 ) are released with the code.
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