Tuning ROS 2 for Energy-Efficient Navigation: Empirical Insights from Costmap 2D Configurations

Robot Operating System 2 (ROS 2), the de facto standard middleware framework for robots, runs each robot as a graph of nodes communicating over the Data Distribution Service (DDS), a publish/subscribe substrate. Observing this inter-node communication in real time is essential to robot development, yet it has a price. A tool can receive data only by joining the DDS domain as a subscriber that discovery has matched to the publisher, so observing folds the tool into the system it measures and perturbs it. We define this protocol-inherent perturbation as the observer's probe effect. It inflates the discovery plane, adds deserialization cost on the observer, makes the loss it reports diverge from what the subscriber actually received, and near saturation displaces the subscriber's messages. The only escape, capturing all wire traffic passively, discards ROS 2 message semantics and scales with total traffic, not what is observed. We present ros2probe, a non-intrusive observation framework that removes the probe effect. It reconstructs the full ROS 2 communication state from the domain's discovery packets at no bandwidth cost, then drives an in-kernel filter restricted to the topics the user asks for, lifting only those packets at minimal cost and observing what the real subscriber receives. Its interfaces and recordings match the standard ROS 2 tools. Across three hardware platforms (laptop, Jetson, and Raspberry Pi), two DDS implementations, and seven robot-operation workloads, ros2probe holds the discovery graph within 0.5% of an unobserved system, whereas domain-joining tools inflate discovery up to 2.6$\times$ and drop 38.5% of the subscriber's messages at saturation while ros2probe drops none. It reports loss with a recall of 1.0, cuts observer CPU and memory by up to 7$\times$ and 28$\times$, and stays practical on the embedded robots where existing tools overload the system.

Long-duration outdoor coverage with autonomous platforms remains challenging beyond classical planning: deployments face localization drift in open spaces, obstacles in cluttered sites, controller feasibility in turn-heavy maneuvers, and persistent autonomy with energy management. We propose a unified ROS 2 architecture for single-robot outdoor coverage: a dual-antenna RTK-GNSS fused in an EKF keeps both position and heading accurate across long missions; three controller-aware refinements extend a mature coverage planner; a Nav2-based behavior-tree mission executive coordinates multi-goal execution, layered recovery, cost-aware goal management, and autonomous docking for return-to-charge. In real-world trials across five outdoor areas with varying geometries and obstacle densities, the robot completed every coverage route, sweeping 93.1% to 96.1% of the planned coverage area.

ROS 2 (Robot Operating System 2) has emerged as the de facto standard for modern robot software development, with middleware implementations such as the Data Distribution Service (DDS) and Zenoh forming the core infrastructure for distributed robotic communication. Despite their architectural flexibility, these middleware systems exhibit structural limitations, particularly under dynamic and resource-constrained wireless environments. This paper presents a systematic survey of ROS 2 middleware and introduces a conceptual framework to examine its architectural limits through three structural dimensions required by distributed robotic systems, namely Space, Time, and State. We first provide a structured analysis of middleware architecture and operational dynamics, including discovery, data exchange, and state management mechanisms. Building on this foundation, we formalize Time as temporal predictability for control loops, Space as spatial abstraction from physical topology to enable modular deployment, and State as contextual continuity despite dynamic node participation and intermittent connectivity. Through a comprehensive review of existing implementations and prior studies, we organize middleware research according to the structural trade-offs that arise among these dimensions. Under constrained wireless conditions, spatial abstraction can obscure network variability and weaken temporal guarantees, while mechanisms that preserve state continuity introduce computational and network overhead that competes with time-critical communication. These interactions reveal structural trade-offs that characterize the practical limits of contemporary robot middleware. By synthesizing architectural patterns and identifying gaps in current modeling and analysis approaches, this survey outlines a principled research roadmap for robust and scalable robotic middleware architectures.