Nov 2, 2026J/K move · Enter open · S save
Davide Costanzi, Eldison Dimo, Emanuele Feola, Mario Sedilesu+2
Department of Engineering for Innovation Medicine, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 15, 37134 Verona, Italy · Department of Biomechanical Engineering, University of Twente, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands
Myoelectric Control Systems (MCSs) enable voluntary control of wearable robots through muscle activity. However, intention decoding, assistance shaping, and low-level actuator control are often not explicitly distinguished, making their contributions difficult to evaluate and compare. This review introduces a functional decoder-shaper-controller framework for continuous myoelectric control of upper-limb exoskeletons. The decoder estimates an intention-related variable from surface electromyography (sEMG), the shaper maps it to a control reference according to an assistance policy, and the controller realizes that reference through actuator control. This decomposition separates intention estimation from assistance-policy design and enables comparison of heterogeneous architectures. Representative approaches are critically examined in terms of module design, calibration, and evaluation. The analysis highlights that the shaper, despite determining the magnitude and shape of assistance, lacks established design and tuning methodologies and is often embedded within the decoder or controller. Key open issues include inconsistent reporting of assistance levels, limited use of interaction-aware stability and passivity tools, and insufficient validation across degrees of freedom, users, and tasks. Building on these findings, this review provides design guidelines for systematic module-wise tuning and identifies future research priorities to bridge the gap between accurate intention decoding and safe, effective, and generalizable assistance under real-world operating conditions.