Mar 3, 2026 · cs.AIJ/K move · Enter open · S save
Georgios Pantazopoulos, Malvina Nikandrou, Ioannis Konstas, Alessandro Suglia
University of Edinburgh · Heriot-Watt University
Transformers excel at in-context retrieval but suffer from quadratic complexity with sequence length, while State Space Models (SSMs) offer efficient linear-time processing but have limited retrieval capabilities. We investigate whether hybrid architectures combining Transformers and SSMs can achieve the best of both worlds on two synthetic in-context retrieval tasks. The first task, n-gram retrieval, requires the model to reproduce an n-gram that succeeds the query within the input sequence. The second task, position retrieval, presents the model with a query token and requires it to perform a two-hop lookup: first locating the corresponding element in the sequence, and then outputting its positional index. Under controlled conditions, we assess data efficiency, length generalization, robustness to out of domain training examples, and learned representations across Transformers, SSMs, and hybrid architectures. We find that hybrid models outperform SSMs and match or exceed Transformers in terms of data efficiency and extrapolation for tasks that require precise information retrieval from the input context. However, Transformers maintain superiority in position retrieval tasks. Through representation analysis, we discover that SSM-based models develop locality-aware embeddings where tokens representing adjacent positions become neighbors in embedding space, forming interpretable structures. This property is absent in Transformers as causal attention is sufficient for acquiring positional associations, and the introduction of positional encoding amplifies this behavior, leading to improvement in data efficiency. SSMs on the other hand update their internal representations incrementally and without positional encodings, are required to learn these associations. Our findings reveal fundamental differences in how Transformers and SSMs, and hybrid models learn positional associations.