Pseudo-Labeling

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19 papers in the last four weeks, up 90% on the four weeks before. 0.2% of all new papers.

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Latest papers 99

Oct 8, 2026cs.LG

Constructing Structured Decision Sources for Consensus-Based Pseudo-Label Learning

Consensus can make pseudo-label learning more reliable, but only when its predictors contribute genuinely different evidence. Multiple models that repeat the same boundary provide additional votes without additional information. We address this problem by con structing decision sources through controlled changes to within-class structure. Starting from a shared graph representation, we vary center granularity and neighborhood mixing, reproduce each resulting source to test its stability, and select a complementary subset using node pair coassignment. Unanimous predictions from the selected sources are then ranked for student training. On the public fixed splits of Cora, CiteSeer, and PubMed, evaluated with five random seeds, the constructed sources improve fixed-budget training pseudo-label precision by 1.19 to 4.39 percentage points over three conventionally initialized GCN sources. Under matched structural filters, three-source consensus is more precise than each constituent source in all 45 dataset slot eed comparisons. The gains are strongest in pseudo-label quality: downstream accuracy remains competitive but does not lead on every dataset. These results identify source construction rather than model count alone as an important design problem for consensus-based pseudo-label learning.

Long Wang

Pseudo-Labeling Ensemble Diversity Graph-Based Semi-Supervised Learning Node Classification

Oct 6, 2026cs.CV

Unsupervised Long-Tailed Adaptation of Vision-Language Models

Adapting vision-language models to downstream tasks has achieved remarkable success by leveraging pseudo-labels generated from unlabeled data. Existing methods typically assume a uniform unlabeled data distribution, and thus the resulting pseudo-label distribution is likewise uniform. However, real-world data distributions are often long-tailed. To tackle this, we formalize a new scenario termed Unsupervised Long-Tailed Adaptation (ULTA). Under this scenario, existing methods exhibit a contrasting phenomenon: head-class performance drops sharply, which is distinct from supervised long-tailed learning where tail classes suffer the most. In particular, we uncover that the distributional mismatch not only erodes head-class boundaries, but also pushes head samples into confusable classes, reinforcing the model's inherent bias. To address these issues, we propose a novel model called Margin-Aware Refinement with Structural alignment (MARS). Specifically, we mitigate head-class boundary erosion via Boundary-Preserving Alignment, which takes the zero-shot VLM as a fixed visual reference to suppress probability increases that lack visual support in the training targets. Building upon this, we introduce Margin-aware Self-Refinement, which employs a dynamic adjustment strategy to refine tail and confusable classes while preventing prediction bias. Extensive experiments on nine benchmark datasets demonstrate that MARS outperforms state-of-the-art methods, achieving an average accuracy improvement of 4.71 percentage points.

Keliang Chen, Yaxin Hou, Hui Liu +1

School of Computer Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China · School of Computing and Information Sciences, Saint Francis University, Hong Kong, China · Key Laboratory of New Generation Artificial Intelligence Technology and Its Interdisciplinary Applications (Southeast University), Ministry of Education, China

Long-Tail Learning VLM Adaptation Pseudo-Labeling

Sep 30, 2026cs.LG

Candidate Retention for Abductive Learning

Abductive learning combines neural perception with symbolic reasoning, using explanations generated by abduction to supervise the perception model. Multiple valid explanations of the same symbolic target can assign conflicting labels to the same inputs. Common policies select a single candidate as a pseudo-label, which may reinforce mistaken assignments, or weight all candidates, which may spread supervision across competing labels. These risks motivate selecting a retained subset to balance supervision sharpness and model-mass coverage. To guide this choice, we bound the coordinate-level supervision error using retained uncertainty, discarded model mass, and model mismatch. For a fixed model and training pair, only the first two terms depend on the retained set. We propose Abductive Candidate Retention (ACR), which uses these terms to guide greedy additions, accepting a candidate when its recovered mass exceeds the increase in retained uncertainty. Experiments show that ACR improves concept accuracy over single-candidate baselines and A3BL in most evaluated aggregated mod-addition settings. Objective ablations support the joint use of uncertainty and posterior mass.

Hao-Yuan He, Yu Liu, Ming Li

School of Artificial Intelligence, Nanjing University · National Key Laboratory for Novel Software Technology, Nanjing University

Abductive Reasoning Pseudo-Labeling Neurosymbolic Learning

Sep 29, 2026cs.CV

ProGuT: Label-Efficient Panoptic Segmentation for Forest Scenes

Panoptic segmentation in forest environments is bottlenecked not by semantic quality but by instance separation; existing unsupervised panoptic approaches produce usable stuff maps but near-zero thing quality. Depth or flow-based instance discovery methods needs sensors that are not always available. We present ProGuT (Prototype Guided Training), which produces panoptic pseudo-labels without per-image training masks, needing only unlabeled images and one-time cluster-to-class mapping. ProGuT clusters CLIP patch features, then recovers trunk instances through multiscale geometric prior that falsifies non-trunk structures via structure-tensor. This is cheap compared to depth, flow or class-supervision methods to create pseudo labels. These are then used for downstream tasks which we evaluate against other unsupervised baselines. ProGuT achieves a Panoptic Quality (PQ) of 65.2 on Our-forest dataset (2.6x improvement over the initial pseudo-label quality) and reaches 65.9 mIoU on Freiburg Forest, outperforming unsupervised baselines like PiCIE (45.3 IoU) and STEGO(57.6IoU). Additionally, ProGuT outperforms existing unsupervised methods for class-agnostic trunk instance benchmark.

Pankaj Deoli, Karsten Berns

Robotics Research Lab, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau Gottlieb-Daimler-Str. 48, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany

Image Segmentation Panoptic Segmentation Instance Segmentation Pseudo-Labeling Unsupervised Image Segmentation

Sep 28, 2026cs.CV

OTT3R: Multi-View 3D Reconstruction and Fast Dataset Generation at 1% Compute

Feed-forward 3D reconstruction models have achieved impressive performance by scaling model and dataset size, but their cost excludes most research groups and precludes edge deployment. Additionally, generating 3D supervision without sensors still relies on slow, unreliable Structure-from-Motion, as the community lacks a COLMAP-like system for neural 3D pseudo-label generation. We present OTT3R (RGB-Only Tiny Transformer for 3D Reconstruction), a knowledge distillation framework that addresses both problems on a single workstation equipped with 2 GPUs. Distilling

π^3

(959M parameters) into a 102M-parameter student yields 9.4

\times

compression and up to 7

\times

faster inference, trained at 1.6% of VGGT's training compute. An integrated pseudo-label pipeline offers a reliable, high-throughput alternative to COLMAP, generating dense per-pixel point maps and SE(3) camera poses for a 667K-image corpus in 3.5 hours on two commodity GPUs and succeeding on every sequence we tested, including those where COLMAP fails. The general student tracks the teacher on in-distribution monocular depth and, zero-shot, outperforms COLMAP on 7-Scenes and on DTU completion, but it does not replace the teacher on out-of-distribution multi-view geometry. The deployable artifact is the domain-specialized student: after specialization at 0.2% compute, it is 4

\times

more accurate than COLMAP on 7-Scenes at 980

\times

throughput, with near-teacher completion. Code is available at https://github.com/TheFourthKaramazov/OTT3R

Brandon Leblanc, Charalambos Poullis

Immersive and Creative Technologies Lab, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada

Multi-View 3D Reconstruction Pseudo-Labeling Feed-Forward 3D Reconstruction

Sep 27, 2026cs.AI

Curating Merchant-Matching Training Data with Two Confidence-Gated Local LLM Judges

Merchant matching resolves a noisy payment descriptor to a retrieved merchant entity or returns no match. A key challenge in curating training labels is distinguishing teacher abstention from evidence that no acceptable entity exists: false no-match labels contaminate pseudo-labeled data, while conservative labeling reduces coverage. We investigate whether agreement between two local large language model judges improves pseudo-label reliability. A label is retained only when the judges agree, with separate ordered thresholds for selections and abstentions that guarantee disjoint positive and negative label sets. Retrospective replay on 2,000 expert-annotated queries shows that higher selection thresholds can improve positive-label purity, whereas higher abstention thresholds increase false no-match labels. At thresholds (0.86, 0.80), Muse Glimmer 30B and Gemma 4 31B jointly label 1,633 queries (81.7% coverage) at 96.88% purity; positive and negative purities are 99.47% and 93.38%. This exceeds either constituent model at the same thresholds by more than two percentage points, with lower coverage. A split-half check finds only 0.14 percentage points of threshold-selection optimism. A symmetric threshold of 0.86 adds 40 erroneous no-match labels, while 46 false abstentions persist even with no confidence threshold. Across five matched within-model comparisons, higher reasoning effort yields no clear F0.5 gain and increases median latency by 1.8-5.0 times. These results motivate separate thresholding and auditing for positive and negative pseudo-labels. The study establishes label purity, not student utility; fresh-data curation and student fine-tuning remain necessary to demonstrate downstream value.

Donghao Huang, Jinling Pei, Zhaoxia Wang

Research and Development, Mastercard, Arlington, VA, USA · School of Computing and Information Systems, Singapore Management University, Singapore

LLM-as-a-Judge Selective Prediction Pseudo-Labeling

Sep 27, 2026stat.ML

An Active-Bottleneck Mechanism for Weak-to-Strong Generalization

Weak-to-strong generalization (W2SG) occurs when a student trained on a teacher's predictions outperforms that teacher. We study when this happens under fully converged, ridgeless two-stage learning, with no early stopping, no explicit regularization, and no assumption that the student is more expressive than the teacher. In two-stage linear regression, a teacher is fit from

n

labeled examples and a student is trained solely on the teacher's predictions on

m

fresh, unlabeled inputs. Although both stages share the same hypothesis class and the same training rule, we show that the student outperforms the teacher exactly when

m

lies in an explicit intermediate range: too few pseudo-labels leave the student without enough signal, too many let it inherit the teacher's noise. Under power-law covariance, we derive this range in closed form as a function of the spectral decay and noise level, including regimes where the improving region splits into two disjoint intervals of

m

. We then study a random-feature model in which the student has strictly more features than the teacher, and identify two regimes, again given by explicit thresholds: one where improvement occurs only for

m

in a bounded interval, and one where it occurs only once the student width

N_S

exceeds an explicit threshold. Both regimes are governed by a single "active-bottleneck" principle: whichever of

m

or

N_S

is scarcer controls how much teacher error is filtered out, while increasing the other resource only reduces estimation noise. Together, these results show that finite data and finite width can themselves regularize a two-stage learner, with no explicit mechanism doing so.

Mohammad Zeinalpour, Amir Najafi

Department of Computer Engineering, Sharif University of Technology

Weak-to-Strong Generalization Pseudo-Labeling Statistical Learning Theory

Sep 27, 2026cs.CV

When Noise Meets Long-Tail: Feature-Threshold Dual Calibration for Robust Pseudo-Labeling

Pseudo-labeling has become a cornerstone of learning from unlabeled data in semantic segmentation. Yet its effectiveness drops sharply in real-world scenarios where strong imaging noise and long-tailed class distributions occur together. We trace this failure to a vicious cycle of pseudo-label degradation. Imaging noise entangles foreground and background features, lowering prediction confidence across all classes, while long-tailed distributions leave tail classes with far fewer training samples and inherently lower confidence. Under fixed high-threshold filtering, these tail-class predictions are systematically filtered out, so they receive no supervision from unlabeled data and thus features keep degrading in subsequent iterations. Critically, noise and long-tail are not independent obstacles but mutually amplifying ones, and addressing either alone is insufficient. To break this cycle, we propose FTC-Seg, a Feature-Threshold dual-Calibration framework built on a standard teacher-student framework. At the feature level, Orthogonal Prototype Reconstruction (OPR) uses a set of learnable orthogonal prototypes to residually purify pixel-wise features, widening the margin between weak foreground targets and noisy backgrounds. At the threshold level, Adaptive Threshold Calibration (ATC) dynamically adjusts class-specific thresholds based on learning difficulty and prediction-distribution bias, rescuing low-confidence pseudo-labels of tail classes from systematic exclusion. Extensive experiments on four public benchmarks spanning three distinct noise modalities show that FTC-Seg achieves strong performance against state-of-the-art methods, with particularly substantial gains on tail classes. Our results establish that jointly calibrating features and thresholds is essential for robust pseudo-labeling under compounded noise and class imbalance.

Ping Guo, Zhiqi Huang, Xinran Li

Graduate School of Information, Production and Systems, Waseda University, Kitakyushu, Japan · School of Software, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China · School of Artificial Intelligence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China

Image Segmentation Long-Tail Learning Pseudo-Labeling Semantic Segmentation

Sep 24, 2026cs.AI

Pretrained ASR Pseudo-labeling for Noisy Police Audio

Pretrained ASR systems perform poorly on noisy Broadcast Police Communication (BPC), hindering efforts to understand police decision-making. Pseudo-labeling offers an unsupervised path to improve ASR without expensive human labels, but the efficacy of this approach on very noisy domains is not known. In this work, we systematically assess the opportunities and limits of pseudo-labeling to adapt foundation ASR models (Whisper and Qwen3-ASR) to noisy BPC domain corpora from Baltimore and Chicago. We demonstrate that existing internal confidence metrics (log-probabilities and STAR scores) fail to distinguish between high and low quality BPC pseudo-labels, and we introduce an external LLM-as-a-judge filtering paradigm that leverages parametric knowledge to discard contextually implausible transcripts. Our LLM-judging filters more aggressively than internal metrics and significantly reduces WER of the pseudo-labeled training sets across the Baltimore and Chicago BPC corpora, though a substantial gap remains relative to an oracle filter. We also introduce a new cross-model pseudo-labeling paradigm where one model is finetuned with pseudo-labels from the other, and we identify this method as a promising direction for future pseudo-labeling work.

Kaavya Chaparala, Su Huang, Stephen L. Morgan +2

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA · Providence College, Providence, USA

Domain Adaptation for ASR Automatic Speech Recognition Noisy-Label Learning Pseudo-Labeling

Sep 24, 2026cs.CV

Can Frozen Hyperspherical Features Guide the Selection of Pseudo Masks?

Foundation segmenters such as SAM return several plausible masks for an unlabeled image, and a student trained on the wrong one inherits its errors. Choosing among them means querying a second large model or fitting a quality head to annotated masks. We show that a candidate can be judged by what it does to a frozen self-supervised backbone's features. Normalized DINOv2 patch features lie on a hypersphere, and a candidate mask splits that sphere in two. Based on this reading, we introduce SphereTrust, which scores each candidate by three properties of the split, the angular contrast between the two sides, the coverage of the foreground's appearance modes, and contact with the image frame, one for each of three common ways a mask fails, and ranks a pool in 0.55 s per image from the frozen features alone. On eight SAM and SAM3 candidate pools spanning camouflaged, salient, and dichotomous segmentation and camouflage under low light, SphereTrust exceeds the strongest evaluated external baseline on six pools by 1.7 to 9.3 percentage points in mean selected Dice. These comparisons include published selection rules and explicitly labeled adaptations of DSS and UCOD-MKD. On the two prompted camouflage pools, its mean selected Dice is within 0.1 percentage points of the candidate-derived DSS adaptation, with a lower catastrophic-error rate. Which cue carries the signal depends on the candidate pool. The same sphere also supports training. The leading candidates enter as a candidate set with their scores as priors, prototypes reorder them, and a cross-fitted second round completes the labels, raising weighted F by 4.5, 2.3, and 5.5 points over fixed-label training on the three MLLM anchor pools, with students competitive with published unsupervised methods on nineteen test sets.

Xinge Guo, Fengyang Xiao, Dingming Zhang +6

Duke University · Carnegie Mellon University · University of Alabama at Birmingham

Promptable Image Segmentation Pseudo-Labeling Unsupervised Image Segmentation

Sep 24, 2026cs.CV

SplatLabel: Pseudo-Labelling through 4D Gaussian Splatting

While 2D Vision Foundation Models offer a pathway to automate 3D semantic pseudo-labelling, translating these priors into robust 3D representations typically requires complex heuristics or multi-model ensembles. We introduce SplatLabel, an automated pipeline that leverages a 4D Gaussian representation to extract LiDAR segmentation with predictive confidence, as well as semantic occupancy grids at arbitrary voxel resolutions. At its core, SplatLabel handles dynamic environments through an explicit temporal manifold that models the trajectories and lifespans of individual 3D primitives. This allows the system to accurately track moving actors and strictly define when objects appear and disappear, completely eliminating the need for pre-annotated 3D bounding boxes. To robustly support this dynamic tracking, the representation is grounded by structural and semantic priors: we guide scene geometry in unobserved regions by integrating 360-degree LiDAR via virtual depth maps, and rather than relying on domain-specific prompt engineering, we directly distill continuous soft probabilities from 2D models to inherently resolve semantic ambiguities over time and space. Finally, to accurately reflect the real-world trade-off between precision and recall, we reframe pseudo-label evaluation as a selective classification task using a generalized risk-recall metric. Experiments on SemanticKITTI demonstrate that SplatLabel consistently outperforms state-of-the-art baselines across multiple recall levels, establishing a highly robust framework for both 3D LiDAR segmentation and occupancy prediction.

Nitya Nanvani, Andras Palffy, Holger Caesar

Perciv AI, The Netherlands · Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands

3D Gaussian Splatting 3D Semantic Segmentation 3D Occupancy Prediction Pseudo-Labeling

Sep 22, 2026cs.LG

Label-Efficient Learning for Ground-Based Sky-Image Classification: A Benchmark of Transfer Learning, Active Learning, and Pseudo-Labeling on GCD

Accurate ground-based cloud classification is important for atmospheric monitoring, solar-energy forecasting, aviation weather assessment, and climate observation systems. However, reliable sky-image annotation is time-consuming, especially when cloud types are visually similar or mixed. We study the label efficiency of deep learning for ground-based cloud classification using the Ground-based Cloud Dataset (GCD). Rather than proposing a new architecture, we benchmark three practical strategies under limited annotation budgets: supervised transfer learning, uncertainty-based active learning, and high-confidence pseudo-labeling. An ImageNet-pretrained ResNet50 is used as a common frozen backbone, with experiments repeated over five random seeds for label budgets from

1\%

to

100\%

of the training labels. Supervised transfer learning is already highly label-efficient: test accuracy increases from

0.635 \pm 0.018

with

1\%

labels to

0.730 \pm 0.002

with

40\%

labels, approaching the full-label result of

0.735 \pm 0.003

. Active learning and pseudo-labeling are competitive with supervised sampling and provide small improvements for some metrics and budgets, but neither gives a large or consistent aggregate gain. Diagnostic analyses show that accepted pseudo-labels are reliable, with accuracy from

0.946

to

0.977

, but biased toward easier high-confidence sky-type groups. In contrast, uncertainty sampling preferentially queries visually challenging groups, including Mixed and the confusable Stratocumulus and Cumulonimbus groups, but these targeted acquisitions yield only modest gains. Overall, transfer learning substantially reduces annotation requirements for GCD, while simple active and semi-supervised strategies provide limited additional benefit over a strong supervised baseline.

Esther Bou Dagher, Viktoriya Bu-Dager, Boguslaw Zegarlinski

CEREMADE, Universit´e Paris Dauphine-PSL, Paris, France. · School of Computing and Information Science, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, United Kingdom. · Institute of Mathematics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.

Active Learning Transfer Learning Pseudo-Labeling Data-Efficient Learning

Sep 22, 2026cs.SD

From Reliable Text to Real Voices: Trust-Aware Progressive Adaptation for Low-Resource TTS

Low-resource text-to-speech (TTS) adaptation is constrained by scarce paired data and costly manual transcription. Existing fixed-voice TTS systems can provide relatively accurate pronunciation, but their synthetic speech offers limited speaker diversity and may exhibit flat prosody. Real recordings provide natural prosody and diverse voices, yet their automatic speech recognition (ASR) pseudo-labels may contain transcription errors. We find that supervision order affects content accuracy and speaker similarity. We propose trust-aware progressive adaptation: synthetic-to-real adaptation first establishes text-speech correspondences, then restores reference-speaker control using real speech. Transcript-agreement weighting uses agreement between two fixed ASR systems as a proxy for pseudo-label reliability to limit noisy supervision. Experiments with FireRedTTS3 on Burmese and Lao and OmniVoice on Burmese show improved content accuracy with high naturalness and competitive speaker similarity. Jointly considering supervision order and pseudo-label reliability when combining synthetic and real speech offers a practical path to zero-shot voice cloning in low-resource languages with less manual transcription. Audio demos are available at https://insiderx-pro.github.io/S2R-Adaptation-TTS/

Jiayi Lu, Yizhong Geng, Jinghan Yang +4

Beijing Logic Intelligence Technology · University of Washington · Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications +2

Synthetic-to-Real Domain Adaptation Low-Resource TTS Synthesis Pseudo-Labeling Voice Cloning

Sep 21, 2026cs.LG

A Practical Recipe for Semi-Supervised Federated ASR: Online Pseudo-Labels with Server Update Stabilization

Semi-supervised federated learning (SSFL) trains models on clients' unlabeled data using a teacher to generate pseudo-labels, with a small labeled seed dataset on the server. Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) is particularly fragile here: pseudo-label errors compound across the output sequence and across training rounds into divergence, leaving a large gap to fully-supervised FL. We show that closing this gap turns on two coupled design axes -- the teacher (which model generates the pseudo-labels) and the anchor (the server-side updates on labeled data that stabilize training). On the teacher axis, a per-client online teacher (each client's own evolving model) diverges on its own, but once stabilized it matches or beats the broadcast global teacher (one server model, fixed within a round) -- decisively in-domain and competitively under domain shift. As the seed grows stronger and the online teacher's advantage narrows, a transitioning teacher (global

\rightarrow

online at round

r

) matches or beats both. On the anchor axis, the server must keep training on labeled data between rounds -- otherwise the online teacher drifts -- and this interleaving, more than the seed model, governs convergence. The two axes are inseparable: aggressive teacher choices pay off only once the anchor stabilizes training, which is highly sensitive to data augmentation and batch size -- the settings that govern how much input and gradient noise the server injects. How much stabilization is needed is domain-dependent, governed by the dispersion of the seed data and its overlap with client data. These findings yield guidelines for SSFL in ASR training, improving over the strongest prior method on 9 of 11 pairs, by

20.8\%

on average in-domain and

10.0\%

cross-domain, narrowing the gap to fully-supervised FL.

Wonho Bae, Zakaria Aldeneh, Martin Pelikan +3

Apple

Automatic Speech Recognition Pseudo-Labeling Federated Learning

Sep 20, 2026cs.CV

Confidence-Aware Teacher-Student Distillation for 3D Medical Segmentation

Medical image segmentation models typically rely on large amounts of densely annotated volumetric data, limiting their scalability across tasks and imaging modalities. This work addresses the challenge of predicting entire 3D anatomical structures from extreme annotation sparsity. An annotation-efficient student-teacher framework is proposed for automatic 3D medical segmentation that requires only a set of point prompts on a single 2D slice per volume, as input. A foundation model serves as an offline teacher, utilizing the provided point prompts from the selected slice to full-volume pseudo-annotations alongside their corresponding spatial confidence scores prior to student training. To mitigate the error propagation of noisy pseudo-annotations, a task-specific 3D student network is trained using a confidence-aware optimization strategy. By leveraging the teacher's pre-computed confidence scores, this strategy explicitly excludes statically uncertain regions of the pseudo-annotations from the loss calculation, while simultaneously emphasizing regions with higher confidence. Evaluated on 3D cardiac MRI datasets, our framework outperforms state-of-the-art semi-supervised methods, improving segmentation performance by up to 43.6%. Furthermore, it drastically reduces the manual annotation burden to just a few positive point prompts per volume, while improving surface boundary precision by up to 14.7% over the teacher and successfully recovering up to 34.1% of the performance gap toward the fully supervised upper bound.

Georgios Triantafyllou, Dimitris K. Iakovidis

Department of Computer Science and Biomedical Informatics, University of Thessaly, 2-4 Papasiopoulou st. 35131, Lamia, Greece

Semi-Supervised Medical Image Segmentation Medical Image Segmentation Pseudo-Labeling 3D Medical Image Segmentation Knowledge Distillation

Sep 16, 2026cs.CV

Learning from Distributed Eyes: Leveraging Collaborative Perception for Automated Model Adaptation

In autonomous driving, perception models often struggle to generalize to new environments due to domain shifts. While unsupervised model adaptation offers a feasible solution without labor-intensive manual labeling, existing methods that rely solely on the ego-vehicle's data often lead to inferior pseudo-labeling performance. To address this critical issue, we propose LDE, Learning from Distributed ``Eyes", a novel framework that transforms collaborative perception (CP) into a source of high-quality supervision for model adaptation. This pseudo-labeling approach is hyperparameter-insensitive and relatively reliable, assuming CP often outperforms single-agent's perception. However, naively implementing this approach encounters (1) the communication bottleneck of sharing rich features under time and bandwidth constraints, (2) the view discrepancy between the CP view and the learner's Field of View (FoV), and (3) the unreliability even in CP-generated labels. To address these issues, we design an adaptation-oriented feature sharing mechanism that selectively transmits the most critical information for adaptation, an FoV filtering method that meticulously eliminates mismatched labels, and a curriculum learning strategy to progressively exploit pseudo labels. Extensive experiments on 3D object detection tasks demonstrate that LDE consistently outperforms both the pre-trained models and state-of-the-art unsupervised adaptation methods.

Yanan Ma, Yihang Tao, Zhengru Fang +4

Hong Kong JC Lab of Smart City and the Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China · School of Data Science, Lingnan University, Tuen Mun, Hong Kong, China · Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

Unsupervised Domain Adaptation Autonomous Driving Perception 3D Object Detection Pseudo-Labeling

Sep 14, 2026cs.SD

Unlabeled Echoes: Pseudo-Labels and Genus-Aware Smoothing for Bat Call Recognition

Passive acoustic monitoring produces far more bat recordings than experts can label. We show that simple model-generated pseudo-labels turn this surplus into effective supervision. We compare pseudo-labeling with other semi-supervised learning methods on an 18-species European corpus using only 10% of its training labels, then transfer the strongest approaches to South African field audio containing nine bat taxa and a nuisance class. Pseudo-labeling outperforms the other semi-supervised learning methods on every European measure, recovering up to 61.5% of the gap to full supervision. It transfers to field audio with gains of 10.69 points in species accuracy and 4.96 points in species macro-F1. We also introduce genus-aware smoothing, which directs uncertain target mass toward congeneric species. Combined with uniform smoothing, it reaches 79.16 species macro-F1, 4.73 points above hard targets. Simple pseudo-labels are therefore highly effective at this ecological data scale, while genus-aware targets inject useful biological structure at no annotation cost. https://code4conservation.github.io/UnlabeledEchoes/

Frank Fundel, Alexandra Howard

Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Germany · University of the Free State, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Qwaqwa Campus, South Africa

Pseudo-Labeling Bioacoustics Passive Acoustic Monitoring Semi-Supervised Learning Audio Classification

Sep 14, 2026cs.CV

ThreshGuide: Class-Aware Labeled-Guided Thresholding for Semi-Supervised 3D Abdominal Multi-Organ Segmentation

Pseudo-labeling is a strong paradigm for semi-supervised medical image segmentation, yet its effectiveness is highly sensitive to confidence thresholding. In abdominal multi-organ segmentation, a fixed global threshold is particularly suboptimal because organ classes differ substantially in size, appearance, and learning difficulty. In this work, we propose ThreshGuide, a class-aware threshold adaptation framework that uses labeled data to guide pseudo-label selection on unlabeled data. Built upon a standard teacher-student architecture, the teacher model evaluates labeled samples during training to estimate class-aware threshold targets by maximizing an error-aware F\b{eta} criterion that balances precision and coverage. These targets are then smoothed with an exponential moving average (EMA) and used to filter unlabeled voxels in a class-dependent manner. Experiments on FLARE2022 and AMOS2022 show that ThreshGuide performs competitively overall, yielding clear improvements specifically on hard-to-learn organs.

Hongyu Liu, Yinlong Wang, Lusha Li +1

School of Intelligent Science and Technology, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China

Semi-Supervised Medical Image Segmentation Medical Image Segmentation Pseudo-Labeling 3D Medical Image Segmentation

Sep 9, 2026cs.LG

Beyond Contact Sensors: Deep learning with Pseudo-Labeling for remote Photoplethysmography

Heart rate is a critical biomarker of health, and remote photoplethysmography (rPPG) enables its contactless estimation from video data for telemedicine applications. Recent advancements in deep learning based rPPG methods achieve state-of-the-art results, outperforming classical signal-processing methods in complex scenarios. However, deep learning methods depend on datasets with precise synchronization between videos and ground truth signals collected via contact sensors, whereas signal-processing-based methods do not. To address this dependence on labeled datasets, which are labor-intensive to collect, we investigate under which circumstances pseudo-labels extracted using unsupervised signal-processing methods can replace contact sensors labels for training deep learning methods. Our systematic evaluations found that for datasets with imperfect synchronization, the pseudo-label approach outperforms supervised training on contact sensors. For datasets with good synchronization, results are mixed: within-dataset evaluation shows no significant difference between training methods, while cross-dataset evaluation favors supervised training. However, removing a single outlier participant significantly improves the pseudo-label approach's cross-dataset performance, highlighting the importance of label quality. These results demonstrate that signal-processing methods can generate valid training signals for deep learning models, reducing dependency on labor-intensive dataset collection while maintaining competitive performance.

Bhargav Acharya, Barbara Hammer, Hanna Drimalla

Center for Cognitive Interaction Technology (CITEC), Bielefeld University

Remote Photoplethysmography Heart Rate Estimation Weakly Supervised Learning Pseudo-Labeling

Sep 9, 2026eess.AS

Over-Tightening-Aware Pseudo-Labeling for Tight-Boundary Speaker Diarization

Training speaker diarization models on loose labels, such as speech segments with padded boundaries or filled pauses, often results in similarly loose model outputs. To obtain tighter boundaries, pseudo-labeling based on the averaged outputs of causal and anticausal models has been proposed. However, since the pseudo-labels are estimation-based, they can suffer from over-tightening, which increases missed detections that can propagate as unrecoverable errors to downstream tasks. This paper carefully analyzes the causes of over-tightening and proposes three approaches to address them: (i) removing pause filling rather than padding, (ii) introducing a burn-in phase to mitigate missed detections near the beginning of causal and anticausal predictions, and (iii) making pseudo-label-based co-training aware of the non-causal model used for final inference. Experimental results show that the proposed method reduces missed detections caused by over-tightening and improves both diarization accuracy and downstream multi-talker ASR performance.

Shota Horiguchi, Takanori Ashihara, Marc Delcroix +2

NTT, Inc., Japan

Pseudo-Labeling Boundary-Aware Segmentation Speaker Diarization

Sep 8, 2026cs.CV

Data-Efficient Crosswalk Segmentation from Overhead CCTV via Confidence- and Geometry-Guided Pseudo-Labeling

Pixel-level annotation of fixed traffic-camera imagery is expensive, while crosswalk models trained from street-level imagery face a substantial viewpoint and appearance shift when applied to elevated CCTV. We investigate a data-efficient target-domain pipeline using 241 manually annotated CCTV images and 5,926 unlabeled CCTV frames. A source-domain experiment trains a 31.0M-parameter custom U-Net on 3,300 first-person-view (FPV) images and obtains 93.05% IoU on its 330-image FPV test split. This result is a source baseline, not transferred performance: the released CCTV notebook instantiates a 42.0M-parameter DeepLabV3-ResNet50 from torchvision weights, and no compatible mapping from the U-Net checkpoint is implemented. Training on 201 manual CCTV images and selecting on 40 held-out manual masks yields 88.91% IoU. The model then predicts all unlabeled frames; image-level certainty and a largest-component area prior rank the candidates, and the top 1,000 attain mean certainty 0.976 and mean combined score 0.988. A repository audit shows that the reported second-stage 98.52% IoU was measured on a 150-image split containing only teacher-generated pseudo-masks. Because of a directory-layout mismatch, the executed combined-data loader found zero manual samples and split 1,000 pseudo-labeled samples into 850 training and 150 evaluation samples. We therefore report 98.52% as internal pseudo-label agreement rather than human-ground-truth accuracy. The defensible target-domain result is 88.91% IoU on the 40 manual validation images. Batch-one FP32 inference at 512 x 512 requires 12.98 ms, corresponding to 77.03 FPS, on an NVIDIA RTX A6000 48 GB GPU. These findings support the practicality of confidence-and-geometry filtering while also showing why pseudo-label evaluation must remain isolated from the labels used for self-training.

Abdirashid Omar, Jonghyuk Park

Department of Data Science, Graduate School of Kookmin University · Seoul 02707, Republic of Korea

Pseudo-Labeling Semantic Segmentation Video Surveillance

Sep 4, 2026cs.CV

SimFuse3D: Source-Guided Target Simulation and Confidence-Guided Multi-Stage Localization Reweighting for Cross-Platform 3D Object Detection

Changes in sensor height and viewpoint alter object-level point distributions, making cross-platform LiDAR unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) difficult. Self-training uses labeled source scans and unlabeled target scans, yet a retained prediction may provide a useful target location while enclosing sparse foreground returns, background clutter, or points inconsistent with the predicted box. We refer to this mismatch as box-point inconsistency. We introduce SimFuse3D, which preserves the target placement and repairs the associated pseudo object using measured geometry from labeled source scans. Object Memory retrieves a similar labeled source instance. Target Simulation places the retrieved source geometry at the target location, aligns its points with the target viewing geometry, and filters the aligned crop to approximate the target observation. Confidence-Guided Multi-Stage Localization Reweighting (CMLR) maps each target pseudo-object confidence score to a bounded weight shared by RPN localization and R-CNN box regression. All components operate only during adaptation, leaving the detector architecture and inference graph unchanged. Across six cross-platform transfers, SimFuse3D consistently outperforms Pi3DET-Net and achieves the best performance among the compared adaptation methods on nearly all metrics. On nuScenes-to-KITTI, it ranks first among the compared adaptation methods with both evaluated detectors.

Yongchun Lin, Xinliang Zhang, Yun Zou +7

Guangdong University of Technology · SenseTime · The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (Guangzhou)

Unsupervised Domain Adaptation Lidar-Based 3D Object Detection 3D Object Detection Pseudo-Labeling

Sep 4, 2026cs.CV

LetOccVote: Learning Weakly Supervised 3D Occupancy through Consensus

Weakly supervised 3D occupancy prediction reduces the reliance on costly 3D annotations by learning from 2D pseudo-labels generated by vision foundation models. However, existing methods typically use these imperfect pseudo-labels directly as supervision, making occupancy learning vulnerable to erroneous geometric and semantic targets. We observe that agreement across repeated observations provides an inexpensive and reliable cue for assessing pseudo-label reliability. Based on this observation, we propose \textbf{LetOccVote}, a weakly supervised Gaussian-based occupancy framework that leverages cross-frame voting to improve both geometric and semantic supervision. For geometry, Depth Vote exploits cross-frame geometric agreement to refine supported pseudo depth and reject contradictory estimates before volumetric lifting and depth supervision. For semantics, Semantic Vote aggregates pseudo-semantic observations in a shared 3D space to identify reliable and contested evidence, strengthening reliable semantic supervision while filtering unreliable pseudo-label segments. The entire framework is trained solely with 2D pseudo-label supervision without requiring 3D occupancy annotations. On Occ3D-nuScenes, LetOccVote achieves 53.27 IoU and 20.39 mIoU, establishing state-of-the-art performance among methods with 2D pseudo-label supervision.

Chi Zhang, Qi Song, Feifei Li +2

Tsinghua University · Shenzhen Polytechnic University

3D Occupancy Prediction Pseudo-Labeling 3D Scene Understanding

Sep 2, 2026cs.CV

Progressive Pseudo-Label Optimization for Point-Supervised Change Detection

Point-supervised change detection (PS-CD) aims to identify pixel-level changes between bi-temporal images using only sparsely annotated points. Although point annotations substantially reduce labeling costs, their limited spatial coverage often results in incomplete and noisy pseudo-labels. To address this issue, we propose a two-stage framework that introduces SAM2 priors into PS-CD and progressively adapts them to the target task. In Stage I, SAM2 generates object-aware candidate masks from point annotations on the bi-temporal images, and a bi-temporal mask selection strategy is designed to convert generic segmentation responses into more reliable change pseudo-labels. Subsequently, a lightweight CNN refinement module with an uncertainty-aware loss is employed to improve boundary quality and local structural consistency. In Stage II, we construct a teacher-student self-training framework in which the teacher is updated by exponential moving average and periodically refreshes the pseudo-labels. This design establishes a closed-loop optimization process that alternates between pseudo-label refinement and model re-optimization. Experiments on three benchmark datasets, including WHU-CD, LEVIR-CD, and SYSU-CD, demonstrate that the proposed method outperforms previous weakly supervised approaches on most benchmarks and remains competitive with several fully supervised methods.

Hailong Ning, Hao Wang, Yimeng Wang +3

Xi’an University of Posts and Telecommunications · Dalian Maritime University · School of Electronic Information and Artificial Intelligence, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology +2

Remote Sensing Change Detection Pseudo-Labeling Remote Sensing

Sep 1, 2026cs.CV

Vision-Language-Guided Pseudo-Labels for Unsupervised Domain Adaptation in Semantic Segmentation for Waste Sorting

Obtaining labeled data for semantic segmentation in applied settings (e.g., autonomous driving, industrial waste sorting) is expensive and often infeasible at scale. We present a cross-modal pseudo-labeling pipeline that enables unsupervised domain adaptation without any target-domain annotations. The pipeline is built on two core foundation models: SAM generates class-agnostic region proposals, and EVA-CLIP assigns semantic labels based on region-text similarity, with confidence filtering ensuring that only reliable pseudo-labels are used for self-training a segmentation model. As an optional extension, BLIP provides language-grounded verification for ambiguous regions, thereby improving pseudo-label quality without altering the overall pipeline. Evaluated on two domain shifts, synthetic-to-real autonomous driving and, with a primary focus, lab-to-factory industrial waste sorting, the pipeline consistently improves over source-only baselines. Our results demonstrate that pseudo-label quality, not quantity, is a decisive factor in self-training under domain shift, and that cross-modal language grounding offers a practical path to reliable automatic annotation in deployment-critical applications.

Udo Schlegel, Shubhangi, Gabriel Dax +3

LMU Munich, Munich, Germany · Munich Center for Machine Learning (MCML), Munich, Germany · Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Circuits IIS, Nuremberg, Germany

Unsupervised Domain Adaptation Text-Guided Image Segmentation Pseudo-Labeling Semantic Segmentation

Aug 31, 2026cs.LG

Learning Materials Properties from Scarce Labels and Unlabeled Crystals

Learning materials properties from scarce labels and unlabeled crystals is a central challenge for data-driven materials discovery. We present SemiMat, a controlled benchmark for semi-supervised materials property regression, and MatRank, a reliability-weighted objective for continuous pseudo-label uncertainty. SemiMat fixes labeled and unlabeled crystal inputs, graph-backbone interfaces, validation-only checkpoint selection, held-out test reporting, normalized MAE (NMAE), and method-rank summaries across six scarce-label tasks, four graph backbones, and five predefined split runs. MatRank builds pseudo-targets from labeled anchors, weights them by local reliability and weak-prediction agreement, trains weak and strong graph views consistently, and adds ranking signals so that unlabeled crystals shape both values and candidate order. Across the retained 24 backbone-task blocks, one fixed MatRank objective gives the lowest aggregate held-out test NMAE (0.896) and best average method rank (2.208). The component, OOD, and generated-pool diagnostics identify where the gain is reliable and where further screening evaluation remains necessary. Code is available at https://github.com/littlepeachs/SemiMat.

Wentao Li, Yizhe Chen, Jiangjie Qiu +3

1Beijing Key Laboratory of Artificial Intelligence for Advanced Chemical Engineering Materials, State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering and Low-Carbon Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Tsinghua University

Materials Property Prediction Pseudo-Labeling

Aug 13, 2026cs.CV

CW-BASS v2: Saturation-Aware Pseudo-Label Selection for Semi-Supervised Segmentation under Foundation-Model Teachers

Semi-supervised semantic segmentation has long turned on one question, which pseudo-labels to trust, and a generation of selection rules, dynamic thresholds, per-class curricula, soft confidence weights, answered it for the noisy, under-confident ResNet teachers of their day. Self-supervised foundation encoders change the regime: with a DINOv2 teacher, confidence saturates, so the filtering that helped a weak teacher can hurt a strong one. We propose CW-BASS v2, a saturation-aware pseudo-label selection method that reads the teacher's confidence regime rather than committing to one rule. It pairs held-out calibration, an unbiased per-class noise estimate, with a self-adaptive confidence floor that provably bounds retention away from 1, and combines them in a one-pass gate: measure the reliability of the teacher's confident set, pi_kept = Pr[correct | c >= tau], on a held-out slice, and filter strictly when it meets the confidence demanded (pi_kept >= tau), falling back to the adaptive floor otherwise. The boundary is the pre-existing operating threshold, not a value tuned to mIoU, and across six DINOv2 teachers it makes the correct strict-vs-floor call blind. CW-BASS v2 thus recovers the UniMatch V2 operating point on the saturated benchmarks by selecting strict (Pascal VOC 1/8 87.4 against its reported 87.9; Cityscapes within 0.5), and improves on it where the confident set is unreliable (pi_kept ~ 89%, ADE20K), where the floor edges ahead (+1.5 mIoU, single seed). The gate is principled because the failure it avoids is measured, not assumed: on a reliable, saturated teacher the confidence distribution's dynamic range collapses (98% of Pascal pixels >= 0.95), so an adaptive cutoff floods the retention mask and self-training decays into confirmation bias.

Ebenezer Tarubinga

AI Research Department, Ebenworks Systems, Seoul, Korea

Pseudo-Labeling Semantic Segmentation

Aug 12, 2026cs.CV

PseudoMapLabeler: Confidence-Aware Pseudo-Label Generation for Semi-Supervised Online Mapping

A critical challenge in deploying online HD map construction systems to real-world scenarios is the scarcity of labeled training data, which limits model generalization in diverse environments. To address this limitation, we propose a teacher-student semi-supervised learning (SSL) framework that generates high-quality pseudo-labels from unlabeled data through confidence-aware map refinement. Our approach first trains a teacher model on limited labeled data, then leverages Beta-distribution-based confidence maps to assess the reliability of predicted map elements across temporal observations. Unlike conventional filtering methods that discard entire elements, we introduce a spatial clipping technique that selectively preserves high-confidence regions while removing unreliable segments. The refined map elements serve as map priors that improve the teacher model's prediction accuracy on unlabeled data in a second pass. These enhanced predictions become pseudo-labels for training a student model from scratch, followed by fine-tuning on the original labeled data. Experimental results on the nuScenes dataset demonstrate that our teacher-student framework with refined pseudo-labels improves performance by +6.1 mAP under a low-label regime compared to training on labeled data alone, offering a practical solution to the labeled data scarcity problem in online HD map construction.

Chikao Tsuchiya, Dhaval Bhanderi, David Ilstrup +2

Nissan Advanced Technology Center - Silicon Valley, Nissan North America, Santa Clara, CA 95014, USA

HD Map Construction Pseudo-Labeling Semi-Supervised Learning

Aug 12, 2026cs.CV

CoDiR: Confidence-Guided Diffusion Refinement for Semi-Supervised Histopathology Segmentation

Semi-supervised histopathology segmentation is challenging due to scarce annotations and unreliable pseudo-labels in ambiguous gland regions. To address this problem, we propose Confidence-Guided Diffusion Refinement (CoDiR), a semi-supervised framework that combines a Mean Teacher segmentation model with diffusion-based pseudo-label refinement. Given an unlabeled image, the teacher first produces a soft prediction, and only low-confidence regions are refined by a conditional diffusion model trained to capture plausible mask structures from labeled data. The refined mask is then fused with reliable teacher predictions and used to train the student with confidence weighting and consistency regularization. On the GlaS and CRAG datasets CoDiR reaches 88.09% and 89.83% mDice with 10% labeled data, and 89.19% and 90.29% mDice with 20%, matching or exceeding the strongest published method on seven of the eight benchmark metrics. Ablations attribute the largest single contribution to the refinement module, which adds +6.36% mDice over the Mean Teacher baseline. The implementation code is publicly available at: https://github.com/vongla345/codir

Hoai Nhan Pham, Dang-Nguyen Bui, Le-Van Thai +7

AI VIETNAM Lab, Vietnam · Portland Community College, USA · University of Science, VNU-HCM, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam +4

Histopathology Image Segmentation Semi-Supervised Medical Image Segmentation Pseudo-Labeling

Aug 12, 2026cs.CV

Learning from Multimodal Pseudo-Labels for Robust Open-Vocabulary Instance and Panoptic Segmentation

This work addresses the challenge of open-vocabulary instance segmentation (OVIS) and open-set panoptic segmentation (OSPS), which aim to recognize both predefined and unseen object categories without exhaustive human annotations. Existing methods often suffer from noisy pseudo-masks, limited visual-textual grounding, and difficulty handling synonyms or out-of-vocabulary (OOV) words. To overcome these challenges, we propose a multimodal framework that leverages pre-trained vision-language models for automatic pseudo-label generation, CLIP-guided synonym filtering, and GPT-based caption reconstruction. In our target-vocabulary-assisted pseudo-labeling setting, the framework first constructs pseudo segmentation masks, descriptive captions, and semantically aligned synonym sets using Grounded SAM, LLaVA, and CLIP, providing multimodal supervision without manual annotation. We then enhance visual-textual alignment through three complementary training objectives: an extended grounding loss that incorporates visually grounded synonyms, a semantic consistency loss, and a generative caption reconstruction loss. Extensive experiments on the COCO dataset demonstrate that the proposed method consistently outperforms previous state-of-the-art approaches under this protocol, achieving substantial improvements on both OVIS and OSPS benchmarks.

Duy Tran Thanh, Yeejin Lee, Byeongkeun Kang

Department of Electronic Engineering, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, 232 Gongneung-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 01811, South Korea · Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, 232 Gongneung-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 01811, South Korea · School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heukseok-ro, Dongjak-gu, Seoul, 06974, South Korea

Panoptic Segmentation Instance Segmentation Pseudo-Labeling