Resampling

Class-balanced replay controls class frequency but does not determine the interval between successive replay appearances of a class. We study this interval, the rehearsal gap, separately from the class marginal and class co-occurrence, and introduce randomised-pass replay (RPR), which visits each resident class once per shuffled pass. For a fixed set of C resident classes and replay batch size b less than or equal to C, RPR preserves the balanced time-averaged class marginal and bounds every gap by 2*ceil(C/b)-1; a churn-conditional bound applies while the resident set changes. The scheduler uses no future class information and adds no replay examples or forward passes. In a linear-head ER-ACE diagnostic, joint absence from the incoming and replay batches produces a one-sided classifier-bias gradient. Longer absence episodes are associated with larger negative bias displacement, and removing the incoming-loss mask attenuates the scheduling effect. In the primary ER-ACE experiments, RPR improves final average accuracy by 0.72-1.67 percentage points relative to independent class-balanced retrieval under reservoir storage, with positive effects also observed under balanced storage. Pretrained ViTs show positive effects on the tested LT10 streams with small replay batches, while matched larger-batch controls show no material effect. Fixed-cycle and reused-pass controls change more than one temporal statistic, so the experiments do not isolate rehearsal-gap length from all other forms of temporal dependence. The accuracy effects depend on the learner and operating regime.

Multi-modal medical image segmentation leverages complementary diagnostic information, yet fusion can underperform single-modality baselines when spatially aligned inputs differ in quality. Here, "corruption" primarily denotes resolution-induced degradation rather than misalignment or complete modality absence, while synthetic noise is evaluated only as an auxiliary setting. We identify a critical optimization-inference inconsistency: degraded modalities can receive weak training updates yet substantially affect predictions, indicating active interference with fusion. We attribute this failure to resampling-induced feature corruption and optimization bias, where noisy features propagate through skip connections and encourage unreliable modality selection. We therefore propose CoReFuse-Med, a Corruption-aware Rebalanced Fusion framework that suppresses corruption during feature transmission and rebalances modality contributions during high-level fusion. Experiments on EPVS, BraTS, and WMH, including multiple Z-axis slice-retention ratios and an auxiliary noise test, demonstrate improved accuracy and robustness under modality-quality discrepancies. Our code is available at https://github.com/lrever/CoReFuse.

Fault localization can focus a code model's repair on the statements a failing test implicates, but a targeted edit may succeed merely because it is small, and a second model call may succeed without using the failure at all. We separate these explanations with three arms applied to the same failed candidate: blind whole-solution resampling, spectrum-based localization followed by suspect-span infilling, and same-length infilling at a disjoint random code span. Across three frozen 26-32B models, three benchmarks and 488 failing candidates, plus a separately declared 24B fourth model from a third family, three results follow. First, localization is rarely available: only 9.0% of failing candidates expose a failing public test with a usable spectrum. Second, among the 177 candidates localizable from a strong suite, localized infilling loses decisively to blind resampling at a matched attempt count (3:40, p = 3.0 x 10^-9), opposite to our hypothesis; the loss replicates in a third family at -11.3 points (95% CI [-16.6, -6.8]), and widening the edit does not rescue it. Third, against the random-span placebo localized infilling leads pooled (11:1, Holm-adjusted p = .019), but that lead resolves in no individual model under the analysis our shipped plan designates primary (best Holm p = .087), so we report the location effect as suggestive rather than established. Re-pricing attempts as tokens narrows but does not overturn this: a span attempt spends 21.7 generated tokens against 371.1, yet 16 localized attempts reach 6.8% while one blind attempt already reaches 10.1%. Infilling reproduces the removed span verbatim in 48.9% of attempts, which is why more budget does not help. We restrict every localization conclusion to the 24-32B models tested.

Large language models (LLMs) have shown promise for spatio-temporal forecasting, but existing approaches often rely on regularly sampled token sequences and struggle with irregular observations because of temporal asynchrony, representation-space misalignment, and limited context windows. We propose LLMODE, a token-efficient framework for irregular spatio-temporal forecasting with a frozen LLM backbone. LLMODE first uses a graph-aware ODE encoder to reconstruct irregular graph observations as a continuous-time latent trajectory. A Fixed-Budget Perceiver Resampler then compresses this variable-length trajectory into a fixed number of dynamic memory tokens. In parallel, compact statistical descriptors are encoded and resampled into context memory tokens. A dual-source gated cross-attention module injects both memories into the frozen LLM, enabling controlled utilization of external spatio-temporal evidence. Experiments on three real-world urban datasets and two physical-dynamics benchmarks show competitive overall performance, with clearer advantages under sparse or dynamically complex irregular sampling. Additional evaluations on unseen urban regions further demonstrate strong zero-shot generalization without adaptation.

Test-time scaling improves LLM reasoning by using additional inference compute, but wider sampling alone can suffer from diminishing returns: new rollouts often repeat existing answer patterns instead of adding useful reasoning diversity. Verifier-based selection offers an alternative, but its performance depends on the calibration of an external reward model. We propose a verifier-free breadth--depth refinement framework that uses test-time compute to both explore and improve candidate solutions. The method samples multiple independent reasoning rollouts, refines each rollout through iterative self-critique and self-correction, and aggregates the refined answers by majority voting. Breadth preserves diverse initial attempts, while depth repairs local reasoning errors before aggregation. Across AIME24, AIME25, AMC, OlympiadBench, and MATH500, our method consistently improves over greedy decoding, majority voting, verifier-based best-of-$N$, beam search, and lookahead decoding across multiple open-weight models. For instance, with Qwen2.5-1.5B, accuracy increases from the strongest verifier-based baseline to $58.0\%$ on MATH500, and from $25.0\%$ to $32.5\%$ on AMC. These results show that test-time compute can be more effective when used to refine sampled trajectories rather than only to sample more candidates or rely on verifier-guided selection.

Self-repair - returning a failed program to the model together with its test output and asking for a correction - is a standard component of code agents, and is almost always evaluated against a baseline that does not retry at all. We argue that this comparison confounds the value of the feedback with the value of the extra attempt. Using a placebo-controlled design on MBPP+ at three model scales (1.5B, 3B, 7B), we compare four matched-budget retry conditions: blind resampling, a content-free failure notice, genuine execution feedback, and feedback augmented with verbal self-reflection. Blind resampling is the strongest condition below 7B, and remains statistically tied with the best condition at 7B, while consuming 2.5-5.5x fewer tokens; conditioning on the model's own failed attempt costs 6.1 points at 1.5B (p=0.006), and the informational content of execution feedback adds nothing measurable over the placebo. We attribute this to anchoring: when shown its previous attempt, a model reproduces a near-identical program in 33-68% of retries, against 2-14% under blind resampling. Two further experiments delimit the effect. Retrieved solutions to other tasks change nothing (bounded to +/-3.5 points), which localizes the harm to self-conditioning rather than context length; and reflection, the only condition that measurably weakens the anchor, remains dominated on cost. Replication rules out two competing explanations: the penalty is unchanged at full precision, and it reproduces on an independent model family. Across six configurations spanning two families and two precisions, its magnitude is predicted by baseline quality alone (r=0.96) - the cost of anchoring is the cost of committing to a bad first attempt.

A randomized algorithm may terminate almost surely even though exceptional random tapes make it run forever. This paper studies the survival tail, the Kolmogorov complexity of one such tape, and the Hausdorff dimension of all of them. For each $s>0$ at which the powered repair matrices commute, the main theorem bounds $\sum_wP[w]^s$ over surviving prefixes $w$, uniformly over deterministic nonanticipating selectors. The case $s=1$ controls termination; the full family gives weak-source and dimension bounds. The source powers contain information absent even from the ordinary repair kernel and the complete stopping-time law. Under one common finite tape source, two overlapping disagreement-repair rules on a four-vertex path have the same ordinary kernels and the same stopping-time law for every selector, yet their nontermination dimensions can be arbitrarily close to zero and one. At one common source-power level, the same dominated tape source makes one rule run forever but gives the other an exponential stopping tail. The separation is caused by action labels that produce the same state transition and are therefore invisible at power one. For bounded-dependence $k$-SAT, conditional block min-entropy above the trace-growth threshold gives exponential termination, and the effective dimension of an individual infinite run is bounded by the trace growth induced by the clauses repaired infinitely often. Tree formulas asymptotically attain the maximum-degree dimension and global source bounds, while clique formulas attain the graph-specific one-step threshold in the stated regime. An exact backward likelihood identity complements these setwise results with tail and coding bounds for each run.

Teams measuring whether large language models (LLMs) recommend a brand face a reproducibility problem: ask the same question twice and the answer moves. Practice resamples each prompt a few times (commonly five) and averages, treating within-prompt resampling as the source of the noise. But a measured brand score moves for at least four separable reasons: within-prompt resampling, prompt paraphrase, model identity, and query language. We specify a crossed random-effects (generalizability-theory) decomposition that partitions the total variance of a response-level brand outcome into these four sources, and embed the components in a decision-study allocation that returns how many repeats, paraphrases, models, and languages to buy for a target reliability. We apply it to a fully crossed corpus of 12,933 LLM responses on 20 Central and Eastern European brands, 8 languages, and 3 models (GPT-5.2 and Gemini 3 Flash in parametric mode, Perplexity in grounded retrieval), with a stability subset of 1,435 cells resampled about five times. The outcome is per-response multilingual sentiment polarity. Query language is the largest systematic facet (26.5% of the variance of one response) against 1.5% for brand identity (ICC 0.0146), so a single AI answer carries almost no brand-discriminating signal. Once a cell term isolates pure resampling, resampling is 34.8% of variance and the brand-in-context interaction 29.6%; brand-by-language is 8.6% (a bilingual penalty) while brand-by-model and brand-by-prompt are near zero. Per unit of query budget, adding languages and models reduces relative-error variance far more than adding repeats: a repeat past the fifth reduces it by only 0.0003. Brand-ranking reliability stays low, near 0.01 for a single answer and about 0.36 at the full crossed design, so reliability is bought by spreading across languages and models, not by repeating one prompt.

After a weak verifier accepts a large-language-model response, a second call may resample or reroute. Because correctness is hidden, action selection is an identification problem. We order three gates: recoverable stopping debt, two-sided FIT action support, and held-out value from an outcome-blind selector. In a pinned 152-query MBPP+ experiment, a Qwen2.5-14B Base-only false-positive stop leaves +2.592 percentage points of Qwen2.5-7B recovery (query-cluster 95% interval [+1.618, +3.664]). Separately, after 7B Base-test rejection, fixed escalation to 14B exceeds leave-one-out 7B resampling by +2.882 points [+0.931, +5.201]; this is fixed-action ranking, not conditional selection. An all-episode audit produces a +2.697-point realized-maximum gap, but for two actions this statistic equals (1/2)E|Delta| - (1/2)|E Delta| and contains no observable-history term. It lies inside an exact-fold exchangeable reference (mean +3.158; 95% interval [+2.434, +3.947]). The audit unconditionally acts on 1,520 episodes: 1,240 observable stops and 280 verifier rejections; 198 stops are evaluator-only false positives. Neither tested outcome-blind controller improves on fixed rerouting. A separate LiveCodeBench ladder has all-zero FIT action advantages despite exclusive TEST rescues. A preregistered BigCodeBench support gate then finds only 23/19 and 22/19 signed episodes/queries against minima of 25/20, so L1-L4, DEV, and TEST stay unopened. Stopping debt exists, but current evidence does not identify when to resample rather than reroute.

Background: Automated 3D segmentation of muscles and adipose tissue from CT is vital for body composition analysis, but multi-source data heterogeneity and high CPU memory demands hinder clinical deployment. Methods: We propose a coarse-to-fine hierarchical framework to segment ten tissue structures. Efficiency is optimized using Dynamic Spacing and Anisotropic Patching, a Group Inference mechanism for low-memory sliding-window processing, and Topology-Aware Asymmetric Resampling for fast post-processing. Results: The framework was trained on 1,558 CT volumes from seven public and two private datasets, and evaluated on an independent test cohort (N=105), per-structure Dice coefficients ranged from 0.924 to 0.982. Eight major structures met the +-10% relative error clinical acceptance limit. On a 12-core CPU workstation, the GPU-free pipeline averaged 44.5 seconds per volume with 4.73 GB peak memory. Conclusion: This framework balances accuracy and efficiency, enabling robust, large-scale body composition analysis on standard CPU workstations.

Finance, sensing, and demand streams violate the exchangeability that IID conformal prediction and the IID bootstrap assume, and existing libraries implement either a general resampling engine or conformal calibration without the other. tsbootstrap provides block, residual, sieve, and wild resampling, classical bootstrap confidence intervals, and adaptive conformal calibrators (EnbPI, ACI, NexCP, AgACI) through a single typed API in which a specification object selects each method. In a controlled coverage study the IID bootstrap undercovers sharply under dependence; dependence-aware methods reduce the coverage deficit, the sieve nearest to nominal under short-memory linear dependence. On the shared fixed-statistic path a compiled backend runs several times faster than arch, and a streaming reduce avoids materializing the $O(Bn)$ replicate tensor, limiting peak extra memory to $O(B)$ for the statistic array. The software is MIT licensed (v0.6.1).

Volumetric medical image segmentation is essential for both preoperative diagnosis and intraoperative guidance. While recent years have witnessed rapid progress in segmentation architectures, comparatively little attention is paid to the physical voxel spacing of anatomical data. Indeed, volumetric image resampling is a ubiquitous preprocessing step before segmentation, yet its interaction with downstream segmentation has not been systematically exploited. In this work, we study the correlation between image resampling and segmentation, and propose Consispace, a semantic-aware resampling framework that achieves consistent voxel spacing in the axial direction while preserving anatomical and semantic consistency. Consispace introduces an ODE-based anatomical constraint to model inter-slice dynamics with a continuous interpolator, enabling faithful reconstruction under complex anatomical transitions beyond discrete interpolation. To further couple resampling with segmentation objectives, we leverage dense features from a pretrained vision model to build intra-slice semantic correlation maps and inject class-wise semantic consistency via feature reweighting during resampling. Both intra-slice and inter-slice constraints are integrated into an implicit neural network, supporting arbitrary-scale resampling. Extensive experiments on multiple datasets demonstrate that Consispace achieves superior reconstruction quality and perceptual fidelity, produces smoother inter-slice anatomy, and improves downstream segmentation performance when used as a preprocessing step.

Multimodal large language models (MLLMs) typically employ resampling-based projectors to transform dense visual features into a compact token sequence for language modeling. Most existing resamplers adopt a single, fixed aggregation scope via global cross-attention, which can blur fine-grained local evidence and limit the ability to capture both local details and global context within a fixed token budget. In this work, we propose MS-Resampler, a multi-scope visual resampling framework for MLLMs. MS-Resampler instantiates multiple scope-specific resamplers by injecting explicit spatial scope priors into the resampling attention, enabling each branch to aggregate visual information at a particular granularity from local to global. The outputs of these scope-specific resamplers are then adaptively fused to produce the final visual representations for language modeling. Extensive experiments on ten public multimodal benchmarks show that MS-Resampler consistently improves visual understanding and multimodal reasoning over conventional single-scope resamplers, while introducing only minimal computational overhead.

Resampling methods such as SMOTE and random under/over-sampling are standard tools for class-imbalanced classification, almost always evaluated by minority-class accuracy or F1. Prior work has established that undersampling degrades probability calibration by distorting the training prior [1]. We extend this lens to synthetic oversampling (SMOTE) and provide a practical, evidence-based guide to when calibration damage matters and how to fix it. Across five public datasets (imbalance ratio 1.9-70) and two ensemble models (random forest, gradient boosting), with ten seeds and paired statistics, we find: (1) SMOTE's calibration cost is real but small (ECE +0.009; Cliff's delta = +0.27, small-to-moderate) across the studied imbalance range (IR 1.9-70) and its discrimination gains typically outweigh the calibration penalty; (2) random undersampling is the genuine danger -- its damage grows sharply with imbalance, inflating ECE from 0.008 to 0.395 on a dataset with ratio 70, largely because the resulting training sets are too small to estimate probabilities reliably; (3) a single post-hoc recalibration step (Platt or isotonic) eliminates the damage, reducing ECE by up to 66% at a negligible ranking-power cost (AUC -0.002, Cliff's delta = -0.07); and (4) the analytic prior-shift correction that repairs undersampling does not transfer to SMOTE, because SMOTE distorts the class-conditional density rather than only the prior -- so data-driven recalibration remains necessary. We recommend that imbalanced-learning studies report calibration alongside discrimination, and that practitioners recalibrate after resampling whenever predicted probabilities drive decisions.

The objective of this paper is to improve radiological gradings measured on MRIs of spines, by resampling scans so that the new view planes are better aligned with the target anatomy than the original sparse images. To this end, we adapt 3D Gaussian Splatting to form a volumetric reconstruction starting from sparse anisotropic MRIs, and imaging planes aligned with the anatomy relevant for clinical evaluation are then sampled and rendered. The novel view plane is optimal for diagnostic radiological grading of the target anatomy, whereas the original MRI is not. The resampled scans are then used to predict ordinal severity grades of localised stenosis conditions in spinal MRIs. We compare our method against Voxel Interpolation resampling, which takes the average of inverse-distance weighted nearest neighbour intensities for each target coordinate. Experiments show that across all stenosis conditions, resampled scans using Gaussian Splatting produce more accurate stenosis gradings compared to the raw scans which do not include the complete anatomy in-plane, as well as images resampled using Voxel Interpolation.

Class imbalance poses a significant challenge in classification, where existing methods such as SMOTE often generate low-quality synthetic samples in regions with noise or class overlap. We propose QC-SMOTE, a quality-controlled oversampling framework that estimates minority sample reliability using a composite neighbourhood trustworthiness score combining local density, safe-level, and isolation from the majority class. Synthetic candidates are generated using an IPQ-guided best-of-K strategy that evaluates midpoint purity and, when required, majority clearance, with allocation guided by sample reliability and boundary informativeness. Generation behaviour adapts across overlap--imbalance regimes, adjusting interpolation range and selection criteria to match local data geometry. Low-quality synthetic samples are replaced with original minority duplicates when neighbourhood purity falls below an adaptive threshold, providing graceful degradation by reverting to duplication in severely noisy regions. Experiments on 30 imbalanced datasets using repeated stratified cross-validation show that QC-SMOTE achieves the strongest average AUC-ROC and Macro F1 among the compared oversampling methods, with particularly clear gains under moderate and severe imbalance. These results demonstrate the importance of quality-aware, geometry-adaptive synthetic sampling for robust imbalanced classification.

Synthetic post-training pipelines commonly filter generated samples with reward models or holistic LLM judges, yet two practices remain rarely examined together: whether the filtering signal is grounded in the source evidence that induced each generation, and whether rejected samples can be systematically recovered rather than permanently discarded. We present a controlled study of both questions across gate configurations, recovery strategies, and generator scales, using adversarially injected corpora to provide ground-truth failure labels. We find that exact source provenance improves faithfulness gating for stronger judges, that hallucination and reward gates reject largely disjoint sample populations making both necessary, and that an adaptive recovery pipeline combining failure diagnosis with targeted regeneration achieves higher yield, recovery rate, and injection recall than naive resampling. Downstream fine-tuning quality is driven primarily by generator scale, with filtration and recovery conditions contributing meaningfully but secondarily.

Recovering the relative 6-DoF pose between two image groups underlies cross-sequence relocalization and multi-camera rig odometry. Each group carries known intra-group geometry from visual odometry or rig calibration, and pretrained multi-view backbones already fuse such geometry into visual features. Yet current models treat all views as an unstructured set, leaving cross-group reasoning as the missing piece. We introduce G2G, which keeps the foundation model entirely frozen and adds three lightweight trainable modules to bridge the two groups: a perceiver resampler, a cross-group bridge with merged self-attention, and a multi-frame pose head. The trainable footprint totals about 32M parameters, under 6% of the full model, and is supervised only by relative poses. Across four datasets that span indoor and outdoor simulation, real-world cross-season capture, and zero-shot sim-to-real transfer, G2G attains state-of-the-art accuracy on both tasks, while trainable baselines are retrained with their original supervision. Code and visualizations: https://github.com/WeiYuFei0217/G2G.

Large-scale biomedical image-text datasets extracted from scientific literature provide valuable resources for medical multimodal model training. These datasets are commonly organized as image-caption pairs; however, figure captions are often short, context-dependent, and only partially informative without the surrounding article text. At the same time, large-scale automatic extraction introduces structural noise such as missing captions, residual markup, duplicated context, and incoherent multi-paragraph figure descriptions. We revisit data construction for medical multimodal continued pretraining (CPT) and present PMC-InterCPT, a context-grounded biomedical interleaved corpus that incorporates figure-referencing body text in addition to captions. Our pipeline recovers missing captions, cleans caption and context text, reconstructs coherent interleaved image-text samples, and applies LLM-supervised medical relevance and quality classifiers to filter noisy records. We further reveal strong modality imbalance in the resulting corpus and introduce a four-bucket evidence taxonomy for modality-aware resampling. Through CPT followed by supervised fine-tuning (SFT) on Qwen3.5-4B-Base, PMC-InterCPT effectively improves medical and general multimodal performance while using fewer CPT tokens than the raw source pool. The experimental results also illustrate the complementarity between the data quality and modality for medical multimodal CPT.

Clustering is widely used across the sciences as the foundation for downstream data-driven scientific discoveries. However, clustering results are highly sensitive to the choice of algorithm, preprocessing, and the number of clusters $k$, producing scientific claims that are often not reproducible. The current state of the art for validating clustering solutions consists of clustering validation indices (CVIs) such as Silhouette, Davies-Bouldin, and Calinski-Harabasz, which rely on geometric assumptions that break down on the heavy-tailed, high-dimensional, and nonlinearly structured data encountered in biomedical research. Resampling-based alternatives - grounded in the ideas of clustering stability and generalizability - have been proposed but remain scattered across specialized tools with no unified, accessible software. We fill this gap with CARVE (Cluster Analysis with Resampling for Validation and Exploration), an open-source Python and R package that jointly evaluates multiple clustering algorithms and hyperparameters, returning stability and generalizability diagnostics at the global, cluster, and sample level together with principled selection rules and consensus-based cluster labels. Across six synthetic benchmarks CARVE consistently recovers near-optimal clusterings where classical indices degrade substantially. On experimental genomics and proteomics data sets, CARVE recovers finer biological structure when classical CVIs collapse entirely. CARVE is available with a scikit-learn-compatible Python API and an analogous R interface compatible with Seurat workflows.

A key step in knowledge discovery is the evaluation of data mining results. In several applications, including pattern mining, graph analysis, and others, this step includes the evaluation of the statistical significance of the results, to avoid spurious discoveries due only to noise or random fluctuations in the data. While specialized procedures have been developed for some specific applications, resampling-based approaches are widely used, in particular for complex analyses where analytical results cannot be derived. However, current resampling-based approaches require the generation and analysis of thousands of resampled datasets, and are therefore impractical for large datasets or computationally intensive analyses. In this paper, we introduce FewRS, a simple and effective resampling-based approach to assess the statistical significance of data mining results with rigorous guarantees on the probability of false discoveries. Our approach can be used in every situation where resampling-based approaches are applied. FewRS builds on our derivation of a novel bound to the supremum deviation of test statistics representing the quality of data mining results. We prove that FewRS needs to generate and analyze an extremely small number of resampled datasets, leading to a highly scalable approach with wide applicability. We test our approach on common tasks such as pattern mining and network analysis. In all cases, our approach results in a reduction of up to two orders of magnitude in running time compared to the state of the art, while preserving high statistical power, enabling the statistical validation of data mining results on large-scale real-world datasets.

Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs) map visual inputs into dense token sequences, imposing a quadratic computational bottleneck for inference. Elastic visual-token compression addresses this by training a single model that can run at multiple visual-token budgets. However, existing approaches struggle under aggressive compression. Spatial-only compression, as in nested pooling, behaves as an imperfect low-pass filter and induces spectral aliasing that obscures fine-grained detail. Query-only compression, as in nested query resampling, replaces explicit grid-aligned tokens with non-local summaries and substantially degrades spatial grounding. To resolve this representational conflict, we introduce PARCEL (Pool-Anchored Resampling with Conditioned Elastic Queries for Efficient Vision-Language Understanding), a visual tokenization architecture that dynamically partitions the labor of feature extraction. PARCEL establishes spatial pool tokens as low-frequency layout anchors and conditions elastic query tokens on these anchors through Pool-Conditioned Query Resampling. This encourages query tokens to focus on complementary visual features rather than redundant spatial mapping. Extensive evaluations across 27 benchmarks show that PARCEL improves the performance-efficiency Pareto frontier, consistently outperforming existing matryoshka baselines across visual-token budgets while preserving the "train once, deploy anywhere" paradigm.

AI coding scaffolds like Claude Code and Codex use retrying: blocking actions flagged as risky and continuing the trajectory. We study retrying from an AI control perspective, which treats the model as potentially adversarial. We find that while retrying reduces honest suspicion scores, the untrusted model can exploit monitor rationale to construct sneakier attacks, negating safety gains. We also study resampling: drawing multiple samples from the same context, which does not leak exploitable information. We disentangle design choices that previous work on resampling had bundled together. In BashArena, with Claude Opus 4.6 as the untrusted model and MiMo-V2-Flash as the trusted monitor, drawing five samples per step and auditing on the maximum suspicion score raises safety from 61% to 71% at a 0.3% audit budget, at no cost to usefulness. Selectively resampling only the steps that look suspicious on the first draw recovers 6.2 percentage points of the gain while drawing only 10% as many extra samples. Two of our findings in this setting contradict earlier work on resampling. The first is that auditing based on the maximum across resampled suspicion scores outperforms using the minimum, which is the opposite of what Ctrl-Z found. The second is that executing the least suspicious sample, which is the central mechanism in earlier defer-to-resample protocols, gives only a small empirical safety gain in our setting (+3.9 pp, with the confidence interval overlapping zero).

Uniform sampling on implicitly defined manifolds is a core primitive in motion planning, constrained simulation, and probabilistic machine learning. MASEM addresses this problem by entropy-maximizing resampling, but its resampling weights depend on a local k-nearest-neighbour density estimate whose errors can be amplified by aggressive resampling temperatures. We ask whether a polynomial-maximization moment estimator can replace the plug-in density rule without changing the surrounding MASEM architecture. The proposed PMM-MASEM module computes shell spacings from nested k-nearest-neighbour radii, estimates their standardized cumulants, and uses a gated PMM2/PMM3 estimator only when the spacing distribution departs from the flat Exp(1) regime; otherwise it falls back to the plug-in/MLE rule. This fallback is essential: on a flat homogeneous manifold the plug-in estimator is already the MLE, so PMM should not outperform it. A local Known-DGP Monte Carlo experiment confirms this gate: the selector returns MLE on flat Exp(1) spacings and reduces density MSE by 22--36% on asymmetric gamma and boundary-spacing regimes. The evidence is not uniformly positive: PMM3 worsens a platykurtic uniform spacing law, and a lightweight resampling-proxy experiment improves seven-lobes coverage but degrades the sine and swiss-roll proxies. The current evidence therefore supports an applicability-boundary result rather than a general MASEM improvement claim.

Credit default prediction is a tabular learning problem with severe class imbalance, heterogeneous features, and tight latency budgets. Tabular Foundation Models (TFMs) approach this problem through in-context learning, which makes their predictions sensitive to how the context window is built. We benchmark four classical models and five TFMs on the Home Credit and Lending Club datasets, varying the context-construction strategy (seven options) and the context size (1K to 50K). On both datasets, the choice of context strategy explains more variance in AUC-ROC than the choice of TFM family: balanced and hybrid sampling add 3 to 4 AUC points over uniform sampling, and the gap exceeds the spread between TFMs. With a balanced context of 5K to 10K examples, the strongest TFMs reach the AUC of classical baselines trained on the full data, while also recovering meaningful default-class recall that default-threshold GBDTs do not. We frame this as evidence that context construction, rather than architecture choice, is the primary deployment lever for TFMs in imbalanced credit-risk settings.

iffusion-based generative models increasingly rely on inference-time guidance, adding a drift term or reweighting mixture of experts, to improve sample quality on task-specific objectives. However, most existing techniques require repeated score or gradient evaluations, introducing bias, high computational overhead, or both. We introduce \texttt{URGE}, Unbiased Resampling via Girsanov Estimation, a derivative-free inference-time scaling algorithm that performs path-wise importance reweighting via a Girsanov change of measure. Instead of computing gradient-based particle weights in previous work, \texttt{URGE} attaches a simple multiplicative weight to each simulated trajectory and periodically resamples. No score, no Hessian, and no PDE evaluation is required. We establish an equivalence between path-wise and particle-wise SMC: the Girsanov path weight admits a backward conditional expectation that recovers the previous particle-level weights, guaranteeing that both schemes produce the same unbiased terminal law. Empirically, \texttt{URGE} outperforms existing inference-time guidance baselines on synthetic tests and diffusion-model benchmarks, achieving better generation quality, while being significantly simpler to implement and fully gradient-free.

Feature attribution analysis is critical for interpreting machine learning models and supporting reliable data-driven decisions. However, feature attribution measures often exhibit stochastic variation: different train--test splits, random seeds, or model-fitting procedures can produce substantially different attribution values and feature rankings. This paper proposes a framework for incorporating stochastic nature of feature attribution and a robust attribution metric, RoSHAP, for stable feature ranking based on the SHAP metric. The proposed framework models the distribution of feature attribution scores and estimates it through bootstrap resampling and kernel density estimation. We show that, under mild regularity conditions, the aggregated feature attribution score is asymptotically Gaussian, which greatly reduces the computational cost of distribution estimation. The RoSHAP summarizes the distribution of SHAP into a robust feature-ranking criterion that simultaneously rewards features that are active, strong, and stable. Through simulations and real-data experiments, the proposed framework and RoSHAP outperform standard single-run attribution measures in identifying signal features. In addition, models built using RoSHAP-selected features achieve predictive performance comparable to full-feature models while using substantially fewer predictors. The proposed RoSHAP approach improves the stability and interpretability of machine learning models, enabling reliable and consistent insights for analysis.

Video is a rich and scalable source of 3D/4D visual observations, and camera control is a key capability for video generation models to produce geometrically meaningful content. Existing approaches typically learn a mapping from camera motion to video using additional camera modules and paired data. However, such datasets are often limited in scale, diversity, and scene dynamics, which can bias the model toward a narrow output distribution and compromise the strong prior learned by the base model. These limitations motivate a different perspective on camera control. In this paper, we show that camera control need not be modeled as an implicit mapping problem, but can instead be treated as a form of geometric guidance that induces displacements across frames. Specifically, we reformulate camera control into a set of displacement fields and apply them via differentiable resampling of latent features during denoising. Our simple approach achieves effective camera control with minimal degradation across diverse quality metrics compared to fine-tuned baselines. Since our method is applicable to most video diffusion models without training, it can also serve as a probe to study the camera control capabilities of base models. Using this probe, we identify universal biases shared by representative video models, as well as disparities in their responses to camera control. Finally, we benchmark their performance in multi-view generation, offering insights into their potential for 3D/4D tasks.

RSNet is an open-source R package that provides a resampling-based framework for robust and interpretable network inference, designed to address the limited-sample-size challenges common in high-dimensional data. It supports both the estimation of partial correlation networks modeled as Gaussian networks and conditional Gaussian Bayesian networks for mixed data types that combine continuous and discrete variables. The framework incorporates multiple resampling strategies, including bootstrap, subsampling, and cluster-based approaches, to accommodate both independent and correlated observations. To enhance interpretability, RSNet integrates graphlet-based topology analysis that captures higher-order connectivity and edge sign information, enabling single-node and subnetwork-level insights. Notably, RSNet is the first R package to efficiently construct signed graphlet degree vector matrices (GDVMs) in near-constant time for sparse networks, providing scalable analysis of higher-order network structure. Collectively, RSNet offers a versatile tool for statistically reliable and interpretable network inference in high-dimensional data.

The ensemble Gaussian mixture filter (EnGMF) is a powerful, convergent particle filter capable of medium-to-high dimensional non-linear filtering. The EnGMF relies on a resampling step that can generate physically unrealistic posterior samples, that would subsequently produce physically meaningless forecasts. This work introduces the discriminator-informed resampling procedure, that augments the posterior resampling step with a discriminator that accepts or rejects candidate particles based on their physical plausibility. In this work these discriminators are learned through a normalizing flow approach. Numerical experiments on both the Ikeda map and the Lorenz '63 system show that discriminator informed resampling procedure consistently reduces error relative to the standard EnGMF in low-ensemble regimes.

Modern Text-to-SQL systems generate multiple candidate SQL queries and rank them to judge a final prediction. However, existing methods face two limitations. First, they often score functionally equivalent SQL queries inconsistently despite identical execution results. Second, ranking cannot recover when the correct SQL is absent from the candidate pool. We propose R$^3$-SQL, a Text-to-SQL framework that addresses both issues through unified reward for ranking and resampling. R$^3$-SQL first groups candidates by execution result and ranks groups for consistency. To score each group, it combines a pairwise preference across groups with a pointwise utility from the best group rank and size, capturing relative preference, consistency, and candidate quality. To improve candidate recall, R$^3$-SQL introduces agentic resampling, which judges the generated candidate pool and selectively resamples when the correct SQL is likely absent. R$^3$-SQL achieves 75.03 execution accuracy on BIRD-dev, a new state of the art among methods using models with disclosed sizes, with consistent gains across five benchmarks.

Denoising of periodic signals and accurate waveform estimation are core tasks across many signal processing domains, including speech, music, medical diagnostics, radio, and sonar. Although deep learning methods have recently shown performance improvements over classical approaches, they require substantial computational resources and are usually trained separately for each signal observation. This study proposes a computationally efficient method based on DCNN and Re-sampling, termed R-DCNN, designed for operation under strict power and resource constraints. The approach targets signals with varying fundamental frequencies and requires only a single observation for training. It generalizes to additional signals via a lightweight resampling step that aligns time scales in signals with different frequencies to re-use the same network weights. Despite its low computational complexity, R-DCNN achieves performance comparable to state-of-the-art classical methods, such as autoregressive (AR)-based techniques, as well as conventional DCNNs trained individually for each observation. This combination of efficiency and performance makes the proposed method particularly well suited for deployment in resource-constrained environments without sacrificing denoising or estimation accuracy.

Synthetic data generation offers promise for addressing data scarcity and privacy concerns in educational technology, yet practitioners lack empirical guidance for selecting between traditional resampling techniques and modern deep learning approaches. This study presents the first systematic benchmark comparing these paradigms using a 10,000-record student performance dataset. We evaluate three resampling methods (SMOTE, Bootstrap, Random Oversampling) against three deep learning models (Autoencoder, Variational Autoencoder, Copula-GAN) across multiple dimensions: distributional fidelity (Kolmogorov-Smirnov distance, Jensen-Shannon divergence), machine learning utility such as Train-on-Synthetic-Test-on-Real scores (TSTR), and privacy preservation (Distance to Closest Record). Our findings reveal a fundamental trade-off: resampling methods achieve near-perfect utility (TSTR: 0.997) but completely fail privacy protection (DCR ~ 0.00), while deep learning models provide strong privacy guarantees (DCR ~ 1.00) at significant utility cost. Variational Autoencoders emerge as the optimal compromise, maintaining 83.3% predictive performance while ensuring complete privacy protection. We also provide actionable recommendations: use traditional resampling for internal development where privacy is controlled, and VAEs for external data sharing where privacy is paramount. This work establishes a foundational benchmark and practical decision framework for synthetic data generation in learning analytics.

Class imbalance is a widespread challenge in NLP tasks, significantly hindering robust performance across diverse domains and applications. We introduce Hardness-Aware Meta-Resample (HAMR), a unified framework that adaptively addresses both class imbalance and data difficulty. HAMR employs bi-level optimizations to dynamically estimate instance-level weights that prioritize genuinely challenging samples and minority classes, while a neighborhood-aware resampling mechanism amplifies training focus on hard examples and their semantically similar neighbors. We validate HAMR on six imbalanced datasets covering multiple tasks and spanning biomedical, disaster response, and sentiment domains. Experimental results show that HAMR achieves substantial improvements for minority classes and consistently outperforms strong baselines. Extensive ablation studies demonstrate that our proposed modules synergistically contribute to performance gains and highlight HAMR as a flexible and generalizable approach for class imbalance adaptation. Code is available at https://github.com/trust-nlp/ImbalanceLearning.

Discrete diffusion models form a powerful class of generative models across diverse domains, including text and graphs. However, existing approaches face fundamental limitations. Masked diffusion models suffer from irreversible errors due to early unmasking, while uniform diffusion models, despite enabling self-correction, often yield low-quality samples due to their strong reliance on intermediate latent states. We introduce IDDM, an Interpolating Discrete Diffusion Model, that improves diffusion by reducing dependence on intermediate latent states. Central to IDDM is a controllable resampling mechanism that partially resets probability mass to the marginal distribution, mitigating error accumulation and enabling more effective token corrections. IDDM specifies a generative process whose transitions interpolate between staying at the current state, resampling from a prior, and flipping toward the target state, while enforcing marginal consistency and fully decoupling training from inference. We benchmark our model against state-of-the-art discrete diffusion models across molecular graph generation as well as text generation tasks, demonstrating competitive performance.

Autoregressive video diffusion models hold promise for world simulation but are vulnerable to exposure bias arising from the train-test mismatch. While recent works address this via post-training, they typically rely on a bidirectional teacher model or discriminator. To achieve an end-to-end solution, we introduce Resampling Forcing, a teacher-free framework that enables training autoregressive video models from scratch and at scale. Central to our approach is a self-resampling scheme that simulates inference-time model errors on history frames during training. Conditioned on these degraded histories, a sparse causal mask enforces temporal causality while enabling parallel training with frame-level diffusion loss. To facilitate efficient long-horizon generation, we further introduce history routing, a parameter-free mechanism that dynamically retrieves the top-k most relevant history frames for each query. Experiments demonstrate that our approach achieves performance comparable to distillation-based baselines while exhibiting superior temporal consistency on longer videos owing to native-length training.

We present TCAM (Track and Caption Any Motion), a generative framework that watches a video and with no text query and no region prompt decides what is moving, describes each motion in open vocabulary, locates it in time, and points to the exact trajectories that carry it. Two mature lines of work make this possible yet leave it unsolved: dense point trackers follow pixels with sub-object precision but emit no language, while video-language models produce fluent descriptions only when handed a query and only from clip-level features that cannot resolve which pixels move. Object-level captioners narrow the gap but still reason over detector boxes or masks, never reaching individual trajectories. TCAM couples tracking and language at point granularity through a Caption-Aware Resampler, where a small set of learnable queries cross-attends to dense point trajectory tokens and distills them into a fixed-length motion context that conditions a language decoder. The decoder generates an entire video's events in a single pass, each with a free-form caption, a start and end time, and a pointer to the trajectories it refers to, for sequential events and several subjects active at once. Training uses only existing segmentation annotations, with no extra event labeling, to supervise caption quality, pointer-mask alignment, and pointer diversity. On over 50K clips, TCAM outperforms dense video captioning baselines and matches dedicated, query-based grounding and point-tracking methods despite using no query, showing that trajectory-conditioned generation is a direct route to motion-driven video understanding.